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de Abreu Rezende YG, Queiroz MB, Young RJ, da Silva Vasconcellos A. Behavioural effects of noise on Linnaeus's two-toed sloth ( Choloepus didactylus) in a walk-through enclosure. Anim Welf 2023; 32:e40. [PMID: 38487410 PMCID: PMC10936293 DOI: 10.1017/awf.2023.34] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
Anthropogenic noise has been related to stress in captive animals; despite this there have been few studies on animal welfare assessment in walk-through zoo enclosures. We aimed to investigate the behavioural effects of noise on a male-female pair of two-toed sloths (Choloepus didactylus), housed in a walk-through enclosure in a zoo in the UK. The animals were filmed for 24 h per day, during three days per week, including days with potential low and high flow of visitors, for three weeks. Sound pressure measurement was performed four times each collection day (twice in the morning, once at noon and once in the afternoon), for 15 min per session, using a sound level meter. The number of visitors passing the enclosure during each session was also recorded. The videos were analysed using focal sampling, with continuous recording of behaviour. Correlations between noise and the behaviours expressed during, and in the 24 h after the acoustic recording, were investigated. The number of visitors correlated with the acoustic parameters. At the moment of exposure, higher levels of noise correlated with decreased inactivity, and longer expression of locomotion and maintenance behaviours for the male; the female spent more time inside a box in these moments. During the 24 h hours after exposure to loud noise, the female showed no behavioural changes while the male tended to reduce foraging. The behavioural changes observed in both individuals have already been reported in other species, in response to stressful events. Our study indicates the need for a good acoustic management in walk-through zoo enclosures where sloths are housed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marina Bonde Queiroz
- School of Science, Engineering and the Environment and Life Sciences, University of Salford, Salford, GB, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Robert John Young
- School of Science, Engineering and the Environment and Life Sciences, University of Salford, Salford, GB, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
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Kaup M, Trull S, Hom EFY. On the move: sloths and their epibionts as model mobile ecosystems. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 96:2638-2660. [PMID: 34309191 PMCID: PMC9290738 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Sloths are unusual mobile ecosystems, containing a high diversity of epibionts living and growing in their fur as they climb slowly through the canopies of tropical forests. These epibionts include poorly studied algae, arthropods, fungi, and bacteria, making sloths likely reservoirs of unexplored biodiversity. This review aims to identify gaps and eliminate misconceptions in our knowledge of sloths and their epibionts, and to identify key questions to stimulate future research into the functions and roles of sloths within a broader ecological and evolutionary context. This review also seeks to position the sloth fur ecosystem as a model for addressing fundamental questions in metacommunity and movement ecology. The conceptual and evidence-based foundation of this review aims to serve as a guide for future hypothesis-driven research into sloths, their microbiota, sloth health and conservation, and the coevolution of symbioses in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Kaup
- Department of Biology and Center for Biodiversity and Conservation Research, University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677-1848, U.S.A
| | - Sam Trull
- The Sloth Institute, Tulemar Gardens, Provincia de Puntarenas, Manuel Antonio, 60601, Costa Rica
| | - Erik F Y Hom
- Department of Biology and Center for Biodiversity and Conservation Research, University of Mississippi, University, MS, 38677-1848, U.S.A
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Cliffe RN, Robinson CV, Whittaker BA, Kennedy SJ, Avey‐Arroyo JA, Consuegra S, Wilson RP. Genetic divergence and evidence of human-mediated translocation of two-fingered sloths (C holoepus hoffmanni) in Costa Rica. Evol Appl 2020; 13:2439-2448. [PMID: 33005232 PMCID: PMC7513709 DOI: 10.1111/eva.13036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Revised: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Sloths are notoriously slow and consequently have limited dispersal ability, which makes them particularly vulnerable to the effects of habitat fragmentation and degradation. Sloths in Costa Rica are considered of conservation concern due to habitat loss, livestock production and increasing urbanization. Reintroductions from rescue centres are commonplace across the country, yet their genetic diversity and population structure are unknown, and there is currently little consideration of the genetic background prior to intervention or releases. We used microsatellite analysis to undertake the first exploratory investigation into sloth population genetics in Costa Rica. Using data from 98 two-fingered sloths (Choloepus hoffmanni) from four different geographic regions, we determined the presence of four potential genetic groups, three of them with minimal population structuring despite the limited dispersal ability and presence of physical barriers. Sloths from the North appear to represent a highly distinct population that we propose may require management as a discrete unit for conservation. We stress the need for additional analyses to better understand the genetic structure and diversity of North andWest regions and suggest that rescue facilities in Costa Rica should consider the genetic background of rehabilitated sloths when planning future reintroductions. Our results also highlight the threat posed by physical isolation due to widespread urbanization and agriculture expansion for a species with a weak dispersal ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca N. Cliffe
- Biosciences, College of ScienceSwansea UniversityWalesUK
- The Sloth Sanctuary of Costa RicaLimonCosta Rica
- The Sloth Conservation FoundationHayfieldUK
| | - Chloe V. Robinson
- Biosciences, College of ScienceSwansea UniversityWalesUK
- Present address:
Department of Integrative Biology and Centre for Biodiversity GenomicsUniversity of Guelph50 Stone Road EGuelphONN1G 2W1Canada
| | - Benjamin A. Whittaker
- Biosciences, College of ScienceSwansea UniversityWalesUK
- The Sloth Sanctuary of Costa RicaLimonCosta Rica
- Present address:
Department of Integrative BiologyUniversity of Guelph50 Stone Road EGuelphONN1G 2W1Canada
| | | | | | | | - Rory P. Wilson
- Biosciences, College of ScienceSwansea UniversityWalesUK
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Nardelli M, Ibañez E, Dobler D, Illia G, Abba AM, Túnez JI. Genetic approach reveals a polygynous-polyandrous mating system and no social organization in a small and isolated population of the screaming hairy armadillo, Chaetophractus vellerosus. Genetica 2020; 148:125-133. [PMID: 32193750 DOI: 10.1007/s10709-020-00092-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The development of agro-ecosystems in the pastures of the Pampean Region has substantially modified their structure and functioning. Many wild mammal populations in the Argentinean Pampas face habitat loss and/or fragmentation due to human activities, resulting in harmful genetic effects. The screaming hairy armadillo (Chaetophractus vellerosus) is a species considered an indicator of the state of preservation of the environments it inhabits. However, very little information is available about its mating system in the wild. In this sense, an isolated population of the screaming hairy armadillo in the northeast of Buenos Aires Province, which is separated from the main distribution area of the species by about 500 km, requires special attention. Genetic studies that analyzed social behavior and mating systems in Xenarthra are scarce but necessary to establish conservation actions for the isolated screaming hairy armadillo population under study. Thus, we analyzed the existence of a possible social organization in the species, together with its mating system, using a set of previously characterized microsatellites. Our results showed a complex scenario for the dispersal and mating system in this C. vellerosus population. Males disperse and females have a philopatric tendency with some degree of dispersal. This strategy, in combination with a polygynous-polyandrous mating system, could enhance genetic variability in this small and isolated population. In addition, no evidence of social organization was found.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maximiliano Nardelli
- Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Nacional de Luján (UNLu), Luján, Argentina.
- Grupo de Investigación en Ecología Molecular, Instituto de Ecología y Desarrollo Sustentable (INEDES-CONICET-UNLu), Universidad Nacional de Luján, Luján, Argentina.
- Departamento de Educación, Universidad Nacional de Luján, Luján, Argentina.
| | - Ezequiel Ibañez
- Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Nacional de Luján (UNLu), Luján, Argentina
- Grupo de Investigación en Ecología Molecular, Instituto de Ecología y Desarrollo Sustentable (INEDES-CONICET-UNLu), Universidad Nacional de Luján, Luján, Argentina
| | - Dara Dobler
- Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Nacional de Luján (UNLu), Luján, Argentina
- Grupo de Investigación en Ecología Molecular, Instituto de Ecología y Desarrollo Sustentable (INEDES-CONICET-UNLu), Universidad Nacional de Luján, Luján, Argentina
| | - Gimena Illia
- Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Nacional de Luján (UNLu), Luján, Argentina
- Grupo de Investigación en Ecología Molecular, Instituto de Ecología y Desarrollo Sustentable (INEDES-CONICET-UNLu), Universidad Nacional de Luján, Luján, Argentina
| | - Agustín M Abba
- Centro de Estudios Parasitológicos y de Vectores (CEPAVE), CCT-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina
| | - Juan Ignacio Túnez
- Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Nacional de Luján (UNLu), Luján, Argentina
- Grupo de Investigación en Ecología Molecular, Instituto de Ecología y Desarrollo Sustentable (INEDES-CONICET-UNLu), Universidad Nacional de Luján, Luján, Argentina
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Garcés-Restrepo MF, Pauli JN, Peery MZ. Natal dispersal of tree sloths in a human-dominated landscape: Implications for tropical biodiversity conservation. J Appl Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.13138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jonathan N. Pauli
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology; University of Wisconsin-Madison; Madison WI USA
| | - M. Zachariah Peery
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology; University of Wisconsin-Madison; Madison WI USA
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Fountain ED, Kang JK, Tempel DJ, Palsbøll PJ, Pauli JN, Zachariah Peery M. Genomics meets applied ecology: Characterizing habitat quality for sloths in a tropical agroecosystem. Mol Ecol 2017; 27:41-53. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.14388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2017] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Emily D. Fountain
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology University of Wisconsin‐Madison Madison WI USA
| | - Jung koo Kang
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology University of Wisconsin‐Madison Madison WI USA
- Marine Evolution and Conservation Groningen Institute of Evolutionary Life Sciences University of Groningen Groningen The Netherlands
- Center of Quantitative Sciences in Biomedicine Department of Mathematics North Carolina State University Raleigh NC USA
| | - Douglas J. Tempel
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology University of Wisconsin‐Madison Madison WI USA
| | - Per J. Palsbøll
- Marine Evolution and Conservation Groningen Institute of Evolutionary Life Sciences University of Groningen Groningen The Netherlands
| | - Jonathan N. Pauli
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology University of Wisconsin‐Madison Madison WI USA
| | - M. Zachariah Peery
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology University of Wisconsin‐Madison Madison WI USA
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Garcés-Restrepo MF, Peery MZ, Reid B, Pauli JN. Individual reproductive strategies shape the mating system of tree sloths. J Mammal 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyx094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Fountain ED, Pauli JN, Mendoza JE, Carlson J, Peery MZ. Cophylogenetics and biogeography reveal a coevolved relationship between sloths and their symbiont algae. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2017; 110:73-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2017.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2016] [Revised: 03/01/2017] [Accepted: 03/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Pauli JN, Peery MZ, Fountain ED, Karasov WH. Arboreal Folivores Limit Their Energetic Output, All the Way to Slothfulness. Am Nat 2016; 188:196-204. [DOI: 10.1086/687032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Fountain ED, Pauli JN, Reid BN, Palsbøll PJ, Peery MZ. Finding the right coverage: the impact of coverage and sequence quality on single nucleotide polymorphism genotyping error rates. Mol Ecol Resour 2016; 16:966-78. [DOI: 10.1111/1755-0998.12519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2015] [Revised: 02/10/2016] [Accepted: 02/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Emily D. Fountain
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology University of Wisconsin‐Madison Madison WI 53706 USA
| | - Jonathan N. Pauli
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology University of Wisconsin‐Madison Madison WI 53706 USA
| | - Brendan N. Reid
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology University of Wisconsin‐Madison Madison WI 53706 USA
| | - Per J. Palsbøll
- Marine Evolution and Conservation Groningen Institute of Evolutionary Life Sciences University of Groningen Groningen9747 AG The Netherlands
| | - M. Zachariah Peery
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology University of Wisconsin‐Madison Madison WI 53706 USA
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11
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Dill-McFarland KA, Weimer PJ, Pauli JN, Peery MZ, Suen G. Diet specialization selects for an unusual and simplified gut microbiota in two- and three-toed sloths. Environ Microbiol 2015; 18:1391-402. [DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.13022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2015] [Accepted: 08/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Paul J. Weimer
- Department of Bacteriology; University of Wisconsin-Madison; Madison WI 53706 USA
- US Department of Agriculture; Agricultural Research Service; Madison WI 53706 USA
| | - Jonathan N. Pauli
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology; University of Wisconsin-Madison; Madison WI 53706 USA
| | - M. Zachariah Peery
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology; University of Wisconsin-Madison; Madison WI 53706 USA
| | - Garret Suen
- Department of Bacteriology; University of Wisconsin-Madison; Madison WI 53706 USA
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Pauli JN, Mendoza JE, Steffan SA, Carey CC, Weimer PJ, Peery MZ. A syndrome of mutualism reinforces the lifestyle of a sloth. Proc Biol Sci 2014; 281:20133006. [PMID: 24452028 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2013.3006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Arboreal herbivory is rare among mammals. The few species with this lifestyle possess unique adaptions to overcome size-related constraints on nutritional energetics. Sloths are folivores that spend most of their time resting or eating in the forest canopy. A three-toed sloth will, however, descend its tree weekly to defecate, which is risky, energetically costly and, until now, inexplicable. We hypothesized that this behaviour sustains an ecosystem in the fur of sloths, which confers cryptic nutritional benefits to sloths. We found that the more specialized three-toed sloths harboured more phoretic moths, greater concentrations of inorganic nitrogen and higher algal biomass than the generalist two-toed sloths. Moth density was positively related to inorganic nitrogen concentration and algal biomass in the fur. We discovered that sloths consumed algae from their fur, which was highly digestible and lipid-rich. By descending a tree to defecate, sloths transport moths to their oviposition sites in sloth dung, which facilitates moth colonization of sloth fur. Moths are portals for nutrients, increasing nitrogen levels in sloth fur, which fuels algal growth. Sloths consume these algae-gardens, presumably to augment their limited diet. These linked mutualisms between moths, sloths and algae appear to aid the sloth in overcoming a highly constrained lifestyle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan N Pauli
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, , Madison, WI 53706, USA, USDA-ARS, Department of Entomology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, , Madison, WI 53706, USA, Center for Limnology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, , Madison, WI 53706, USA, USDA-ARS, Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, , Madison, WI 53706, USA, Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, , Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
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Peery MZ, Pauli JN. Shade-grown cacao supports a self-sustaining population of two-toed but not three-toed sloths. J Appl Ecol 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.12182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M. Zachariah Peery
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology; University of Wisconsin-Madison; 1630 Linden Drive Madison WI 53706 USA
| | - Jonathan N. Pauli
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology; University of Wisconsin-Madison; 1630 Linden Drive Madison WI 53706 USA
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14
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Pauli JN, Peery MZ. Unexpected strong polygyny in the brown-throated three-toed sloth. PLoS One 2012; 7:e51389. [PMID: 23284687 PMCID: PMC3526605 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0051389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2012] [Accepted: 11/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Promiscuous mating strategies are much more common than previously appreciated. So much so, that several authors have proposed that promiscuity is the "rule" rather than the exception in vertebrate mating systems. Decreasing species mobility and increasing habitat fragmentation have both been suggested to reduce the "polygyny potential" of the environment and promote other mating strategies like promiscuity in females. We explored the social and genetic mating system for one of the most sedentary extant mammals, the brown-throated three-toed sloth (Bradypus variegatus), within a highly fragmented Neotropical habitat. Surprisingly, we found that three-toed sloths were strongly polygynous, with males excluding male competitors from their core ranges, and exhibiting strong reproductive skew. Indeed, only 25% of all resident adult males sired offspring and one individual sired half of all sampled juveniles. Paradoxically, a sedentary life-history strategy seems to facilitate polygyny in fragmented landscapes because multiple females can persist within small patches of habitat, and be monopolized by a single male. Our work demonstrates that strong polygyny can arise in systems in which the polygyny potential should be extremely low, and other strategies, including promiscuity, would be favoured. Mating systems can be influenced by a multitude of factor and are dynamic, varying among taxa, over time, and across habitats; consequently, mating systems remain difficult to predict based on general ecological principles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan N Pauli
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, United States of America.
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