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Lucon-Xiccato T, Gatto E, Fontana CM, Bisazza A. Quantity discrimination in newly hatched zebrafish suggests hardwired numerical abilities. Commun Biol 2023; 6:247. [PMID: 36959336 PMCID: PMC10036331 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-04595-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/25/2023] Open
Abstract
An intriguing hypothesis to explain the ubiquity of numerical abilities is that all vertebrates are born with hardwired neuronal networks for processing numbers. To date, only studies on human foetuses have clearly supported this hypothesis. Zebrafish hatch 48-72 h after fertilisation with an embryonic nervous system, providing a unique opportunity for investigating this hypothesis. Here, we demonstrated that zebrafish larvae exposed to vertical bars at birth acquired an attraction for bar stimuli and we developed a numerical discrimination task based on this preference. When tested with a series of discriminations of increasing difficulty (1vs.4, 1vs.3, 1vs.2, and 2vs.4 bars), zebrafish larvae reliably selected the greater numerosity. The preference was significant when stimuli were matched for surface area, luminance, density, and convex hull, thereby suggesting a true capacity to process numerical information. Converging results from two phylogenetically distant species suggests that numerical abilities might be a hallmark feature of vertebrates' brains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyrone Lucon-Xiccato
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy.
| | - Elia Gatto
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
- Department of Chemical, Pharmaceutical and Agricultural Sciences, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | | | - Angelo Bisazza
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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2
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Clever pest control? The role of cognition in biological pest regulation. Anim Cogn 2023; 26:189-197. [PMID: 36526865 PMCID: PMC9877098 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01731-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Crop pest management is a global challenge. Increases in agricultural intensity due to anthropogenic demands, alongside the need to reduce the reliance on pesticides to minimize environmental harm, have resulted in an urgent need to improve and expand other methods of pest control. One increasingly utilized method is biological pest control, in which natural pest predators are used to regulating crop pests. Current approaches to biological pest regulation assess the importance of a pest controller by examining its ability to maintain pest populations over an extended period. However, this approach lacks efficiency, specificity, and efficacy because it does not take into account crucial factors which determine how predators find, evaluate and remember food sources-the cognitive processes underlying their behavior. This review will investigate the cognitive factors involved in biological pest control and examine how these factors may be manipulated to impact pest behavior and pest controller performance.
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3
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Messina A, Potrich D, Perrino M, Sheardown E, Miletto Petrazzini ME, Luu P, Nadtochiy A, Truong TV, Sovrano VA, Fraser SE, Brennan CH, Vallortigara G. Quantity as a Fish Views It: Behavior and Neurobiology. Front Neuroanat 2022; 16:943504. [PMID: 35911657 PMCID: PMC9334151 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2022.943504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
An ability to estimate quantities, such as the number of conspecifics or the size of a predator, has been reported in vertebrates. Fish, in particular zebrafish, may be instrumental in advancing the understanding of magnitude cognition. We review here the behavioral studies that have described the ecological relevance of quantity estimation in fish and the current status of the research aimed at investigating the neurobiological bases of these abilities. By combining behavioral methods with molecular genetics and calcium imaging, the involvement of the retina and the optic tectum has been documented for the estimation of continuous quantities in the larval and adult zebrafish brain, and the contributions of the thalamus and the dorsal-central pallium for discrete magnitude estimation in the adult zebrafish brain. Evidence for basic circuitry can now be complemented and extended to research that make use of transgenic lines to deepen our understanding of quantity cognition at genetic and molecular levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Messina
- Centre for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Davide Potrich
- Centre for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Matilde Perrino
- Centre for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Eva Sheardown
- Centre for Developmental Neurobiology, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, New Hunt’s House, Kings College London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Peter Luu
- Michelson Center for Convergent Bioscience, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Anna Nadtochiy
- Michelson Center for Convergent Bioscience, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Thai V. Truong
- Michelson Center for Convergent Bioscience, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Valeria Anna Sovrano
- Centre for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Scott E. Fraser
- Michelson Center for Convergent Bioscience, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Caroline H. Brennan
- School of Biological and Behavioral Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
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4
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Bisazza A, Santacà M. Zebrafish excel in number discrimination under an operant conditioning paradigm. Anim Cogn 2022; 25:917-933. [PMID: 35179665 PMCID: PMC9334370 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01602-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 01/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Numerical discrimination is widespread in vertebrates, but this capacity varies enormously between the different species examined. The guppy (Poecilia reticulata), the only teleost examined following procedures that allow a comparison with the other vertebrates, outperforms amphibians, reptiles and many warm-blooded vertebrates, but it is unclear whether this is a feature shared with the other teleosts or represents a peculiarity of this species. We trained zebrafish (Danio rerio) to discriminate between numbers differing by one unit, varying task difficulty from 2 versus 3 to 5 versus 6 items. Non-numerical variables that covary with number, such as density or area, did not affect performance. Most fish reached learning criterion on all tasks up to 4 versus 5 discrimination with no sex difference in accuracy. Although no individual reached learning criterion in the 5 versus 6 task, performance was significant at the group level, suggesting that this may represent the discrimination threshold for zebrafish. Numerosity discrimination abilities of zebrafish compare to those of guppy, being higher than in some warm-blooded vertebrates, such as dogs, horses and domestic fowl, though lower than in parrots, corvids and primates. Learning rate was similar in a control group trained to discriminate between different-sized shapes, but zebrafish were slightly more accurate when discriminating areas than numbers and males were more accurate than females. At the end of the experiment, fish trained on numbers and controls trained on areas generalized to the reciprocal set of stimuli, indicating they had used a relational strategy to solve these tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelo Bisazza
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy.,Padua Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Maria Santacà
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Viale Giuseppe Colombo 3-Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131, Padua, Italy.
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5
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Sheardown E, Torres-Perez JV, Anagianni S, Fraser SE, Vallortigara G, Butterworth B, Miletto-Petrazzini ME, Brennan CH. Characterizing ontogeny of quantity discrimination in zebrafish. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20212544. [PMID: 35135351 PMCID: PMC8826302 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.2544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A sense of non-symbolic numerical magnitudes is widespread in the animal kingdom and has been documented in adult zebrafish. Here, we investigated the ontogeny of this ability using a group size preference (GSP) task in juvenile zebrafish. Fish showed GSP from 21 days post-fertilization and reliably chose the larger group when presented with discriminations of between 1 versus 3, 2 versus 5 and 2 versus 3 conspecifics but not 2 versus 4 conspecifics. When the ratio between the number of conspecifics in each group was maintained at 1 : 2, fish could discriminate between 1 versus 2 individuals and 3 versus 6, but again, not when given a choice between 2 versus 4 individuals. These findings are in agreement with studies in other species, suggesting the systems involved in quantity representation do not operate separately from other cognitive mechanisms. Rather they suggest quantity processing in fishes may be the result of an interplay between attentional, cognitive and memory-related mechanisms as in humans and other animals. Our results emphasize the potential of the use of zebrafish to explore the genetic and neural processes underlying the ontogeny and function of number cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Sheardown
- Centre for Developmental Neurobiology, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Kings College London, New Hunt's House, Guy's Campus, London SE1 1UL, UK
- School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London, E1 4NS, UK
| | - Jose Vicente Torres-Perez
- Departament de Biologia Cellular, Biologia Funcional i Antropologia física, Fac. de CC. Biològiques, Universitat de València, C/ Dr. Moliner 50, 46100 Burjassot (València), Spain
- School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London, E1 4NS, UK
| | - Sofia Anagianni
- School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London, E1 4NS, UK
| | - Scott E. Fraser
- Michelson Center for Convergent Bioscience, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA
| | | | - Brian Butterworth
- UCL Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17 Queen Square, London WC1N 3AZ, UK
| | - Maria Elena Miletto-Petrazzini
- School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London, E1 4NS, UK
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Caroline H. Brennan
- School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London, E1 4NS, UK
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Montalbano G, Bertolucci C, Lucon-Xiccato T. Cognitive Phenotypic Plasticity: Environmental Enrichment Affects Learning but Not Executive Functions in a Teleost Fish, Poecilia reticulata. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:64. [PMID: 35053062 PMCID: PMC8772815 DOI: 10.3390/biology11010064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Many aspects of animal cognition are plastically adjusted in response to the environment through individual experience. A remarkable example of this cognitive phenotypic plasticity is often observed when comparing individuals raised in a barren environment to individuals raised in an enriched environment. Evidence of enrichment-driven cognitive plasticity in teleost fish continues to grow, but it remains restricted to a few cognitive traits. The purpose of this study was to investigate how environmental enrichment affects multiple cognitive traits (learning, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control) in the guppy, Poecilia reticulata. To reach this goal, we exposed new-born guppies to different treatments: an enrichment environment with social companions, natural substrate, vegetation, and live prey or a barren environment with none of the above. After a month of treatment, we tested the subjects in a battery of three cognitive tasks. Guppies from the enriched environment learned a color discrimination faster compared to guppies from the environment with no enrichments. We observed no difference between guppies of the two treatments in the cognitive flexibility task, requiring selection of a previously unrewarded stimulus, nor in the inhibitory control task, requiring the inhibition of the attack response toward live prey. Overall, the results indicated that environmental enrichment had an influence on guppies' learning ability, but not on the remaining cognitive functions investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Montalbano
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy;
| | - Cristiano Bertolucci
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy;
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7
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Messina A, Potrich D, Schiona I, Sovrano VA, Vallortigara G. The Sense of Number in Fish, with Particular Reference to Its Neurobiological Bases. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11113072. [PMID: 34827804 PMCID: PMC8614421 DOI: 10.3390/ani11113072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The ability to deal with quantity, both discrete (numerosities) and continuous (spatial or temporal extent) developed from an evolutionarily conserved system for approximating numerical magnitude. Non-symbolic number cognition based on an approximate sense of magnitude has been documented in a variety of vertebrate species, including fish. Fish, in particular zebrafish, are widely used as models for the investigation of the genetics and molecular mechanisms of behavior, and thus may be instrumental to development of a neurobiology of number cognition. We review here the behavioural studies that have permitted to identify numerical abilities in fish, and the current status of the research related to the neurobiological bases of these abilities with special reference to zebrafish. Combining behavioural tasks with molecular genetics, molecular biology and confocal microscopy, a role of the retina and optic tectum in the encoding of continuous magnitude in larval zebrafish has been reported, while the thalamus and the dorso-central subdivision of pallium in the encoding of discrete magnitude (number) has been documented in adult zebrafish. Research in fish, in particular zebrafish, may reveal instrumental for identifying and characterizing the molecular signature of neurons involved in quantity discrimination processes of all vertebrates, including humans. Abstract It is widely acknowledged that vertebrates can discriminate non-symbolic numerosity using an evolutionarily conserved system dubbed Approximate Number System (ANS). Two main approaches have been used to assess behaviourally numerosity in fish: spontaneous choice tests and operant training procedures. In the first, animals spontaneously choose between sets of biologically-relevant stimuli (e.g., conspecifics, food) differing in quantities (smaller or larger). In the second, animals are trained to associate a numerosity with a reward. Although the ability of fish to discriminate numerosity has been widely documented with these methods, the molecular bases of quantities estimation and ANS are largely unknown. Recently, we combined behavioral tasks with molecular biology assays (e.g c-fos and egr1 and other early genes expression) showing that the thalamus and the caudal region of dorso-central part of the telencephalon seem to be activated upon change in numerousness in visual stimuli. In contrast, the retina and the optic tectum mainly responded to changes in continuous magnitude such as stimulus size. We here provide a review and synthesis of these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Messina
- Centre for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, 38068 Rovereto, Italy; (D.P.); (I.S.); (V.A.S.)
- Correspondence: (A.M.); (G.V.)
| | - Davide Potrich
- Centre for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, 38068 Rovereto, Italy; (D.P.); (I.S.); (V.A.S.)
| | - Ilaria Schiona
- Centre for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, 38068 Rovereto, Italy; (D.P.); (I.S.); (V.A.S.)
| | - Valeria Anna Sovrano
- Centre for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, 38068 Rovereto, Italy; (D.P.); (I.S.); (V.A.S.)
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of Trento, 38068 Rovereto, Italy
| | - Giorgio Vallortigara
- Centre for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, 38068 Rovereto, Italy; (D.P.); (I.S.); (V.A.S.)
- Correspondence: (A.M.); (G.V.)
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8
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Khatiwada S, Burmeister SS. Quantity discrimination in a spontaneous task in a poison frog. Anim Cogn 2021; 25:27-32. [PMID: 34322772 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-021-01528-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The use of quantitative information underlies a range of animal behaviors. There are thought to be two parallel systems for judging quantity: a precise representation of small numbers of objects, typically less than 4, that can be tracked visually (object tracking system) and an imprecise system for larger quantities (approximate number system) governed by Weber's law. Using a spontaneous discrimination task with live prey, we examined the ability of the poison frog Dendrobates auratus to discriminate quantities of low (1-4) or high (4-16) numerosity over a range of ratio contrasts (0.33, 0.5, 0.67, 0.75). Similar to a previous study in treefrogs, we found that the poison frogs chose the larger quantity of flies when choosing between 1 and 3 and between 1 and 2. However, their performance was near chance when choosing between 2 and 3 and below chance when choosing between 3 and 4. When the numerosity of flies was higher, they did not discriminate between the larger and smaller quantity. Our findings are consistent with the ability of poison frogs to discriminate small quantities of objects using an object tracking system, but could also reflect a singular vs. plural discrimination. We did not find evidence of an approximate number system governed by Weber's law, nor evidence of a speed-accuracy tradeoff. However, total set size was associated with lower accuracy and longer latencies to choose. Future studies should explore quantity discrimination in additional contexts to better understand the limits of these abilities in poison frogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunil Khatiwada
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, 27599, USA
| | - Sabrina S Burmeister
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, 27599, USA.
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Gatto E, Loukola OJ, Agrillo C. Quantitative abilities of invertebrates: a methodological review. Anim Cogn 2021; 25:5-19. [PMID: 34282520 PMCID: PMC8904327 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-021-01529-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2020] [Revised: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Quantitative abilities are widely recognized to play important roles in several ecological contexts, such as foraging, mate choice, and social interaction. Indeed, such abilities are widespread among vertebrates, in particular mammals, birds, and fish. Recently, there has been an increasing number of studies on the quantitative abilities of invertebrates. In this review, we present the current knowledge in this field, especially focusing on the ecological relevance of the capacity to process quantitative information, the similarities with vertebrates, and the different methods adopted to investigate this cognitive skill. The literature argues, beyond methodological differences, a substantial similarity between the quantitative abilities of invertebrates and those of vertebrates, supporting the idea that similar ecological pressures may determine the emergence of similar cognitive systems even in distantly related species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elia Gatto
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Via Venezia 8, 35131, Padua, Italy.
| | - Olli J Loukola
- Ecology and Genetics Research Unit, University of Oulu, POB 3000, 90014, Oulu, Finland
| | - Christian Agrillo
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Via Venezia 8, 35131, Padua, Italy.,Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
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10
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The Challenge of Illusory Perception of Animals: The Impact of Methodological Variability in Cross-Species Investigation. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11061618. [PMID: 34070792 PMCID: PMC8228898 DOI: 10.3390/ani11061618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Revised: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Research in neurobiology and ethology has given us a glimpse into the different perceptual worlds of animals. More recently, visual illusions have been used in behavioural research to compare the perception between different animal species. The studies conducted so far have provided contradictory results, raising the possibility that different methodological approaches might influence illusory perception. Here, we review the literature on this topic, considering both field and laboratory studies. In addition, we compare the two approaches used in laboratories, namely spontaneous choice tests and training procedures, highlighting both their relevance and their potential weaknesses. Adopting both procedures has the potential to combine their advantages. Although this twofold approach has seldomly been adopted, we expect it will become more widely used in the near future in order to shed light on the heterogeneous pattern observed in the literature of visual illusions. Abstract Although we live on the same planet, there are countless different ways of seeing the surroundings that reflect the different individual experiences and selective pressures. In recent decades, visual illusions have been used in behavioural research to compare the perception between different vertebrate species. The studies conducted so far have provided contradictory results, suggesting that the underlying perceptual mechanisms may differ across species. Besides the differentiation of the perceptual mechanisms, another explanation could be taken into account. Indeed, the different studies often used different methodologies that could have potentially introduced confounding factors. In fact, the possibility exists that the illusory perception is influenced by the different methodologies and the test design. Almost every study of this research field has been conducted in laboratories adopting two different methodological approaches: a spontaneous choice test or a training procedure. In the spontaneous choice test, a subject is presented with biologically relevant stimuli in an illusory context, whereas, in the training procedure, a subject has to undergo an extensive training during which neutral stimuli are associated with a biologically relevant reward. Here, we review the literature on this topic, highlighting both the relevance and the potential weaknesses of the different methodological approaches.
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11
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Automated Operant Conditioning Devices for Fish. Do They Work? Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11051397. [PMID: 34068933 PMCID: PMC8156027 DOI: 10.3390/ani11051397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2020] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Automated training devices are commonly used for investigating learning, memory, and other cognitive functions in warm-blood vertebrates, whereas manual training procedures are the standard in fish and other lower vertebrates, thus limiting comparison among species. Here, we directly compared the two different approaches to training in guppies (Poecilia reticulata) by administering numerical discrimination tasks of increasing difficulty. The automated device group showed a much lower performance compared to the traditionally-trained group. We modified some features of the automated device in order to improve its efficiency. Increasing the decision time or inter-trial interval was ineffective, while reducing the cognitive load and allowing subjects to reside in the test tank improved numerical performance. Yet, in no case did subjects match the performance of traditionally-trained subjects, suggesting that small teleosts may be limited in their capacity to cope with operant conditioning devices. Abstract The growing use of teleosts in comparative cognition and in neurobiological research has prompted many researchers to develop automated conditioning devices for fish. These techniques can make research less expensive and fully comparable with research on warm-blooded species, in which automated devices have been used for more than a century. Tested with a recently developed automated device, guppies (Poecilia reticulata) easily performed 80 reinforced trials per session, exceeding 80% accuracy in color or shape discrimination tasks after only 3–4 training session, though they exhibit unexpectedly poor performance in numerical discrimination tasks. As several pieces of evidence indicate, guppies possess excellent numerical abilities. In the first part of this study, we benchmarked the automated training device with a standard manual training procedure by administering the same set of tasks, which consisted of numerical discriminations of increasing difficulty. All manually-trained guppies quickly learned the easiest discriminations and a substantial percentage learned the more difficult ones, such as 4 vs. 5 items. No fish trained with the automated conditioning device reached the learning criterion for even the easiest discriminations. In the second part of the study, we introduced a series of modifications to the conditioning chamber and to the procedure in an attempt to improve its efficiency. Increasing the decision time, inter-trial interval, or visibility of the stimuli did not produce an appreciable improvement. Reducing the cognitive load of the task by training subjects first to use the device with shape and color discriminations, significantly improved their numerical performance. Allowing the subjects to reside in the test chamber, which likely reduced the amount of attentional resources subtracted to task execution, also led to an improvement, although in no case did subjects match the performance of fish trained with the standard procedure. Our results highlight limitations in the capacity of small laboratory teleosts to cope with operant conditioning automation that was not observed in laboratory mammals and birds and that currently prevent an easy and straightforward comparison with other vertebrates.
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12
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Szabo B, Noble DWA, McCloghry KJ, Monteiro MES, Whiting MJ. Spontaneous quantity discrimination in a family-living lizard. Behav Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arab019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
While foraging or during social interactions, animals may benefit from judging relative quantity. Individuals may select larger prey or a patch with more food and, likewise, it may pay to track the number and type of individuals and social interactions. We tested for spontaneous quantity discrimination in the gidgee skink (Egernia stokesii), a family-living lizard. Lizards were presented with food quantities differing in number or size and were able to select the larger quantity of food items when they differed in number but not when items differed in size. We show, for the first time, superior spontaneous discrimination of items differing in number over size in a lizard species, which contrasts with previous findings. Our simple method, however, did not include controls for the use of continuous quantities, and further tests are required to determine the role of such information during quantity discrimination. Our results provide support for the use of the parallel individuation system for the discrimination of small quantities (four or fewer items). Lizards might, however, still use the approximate number system if items in larger quantities (more than four) are presented. Overall, we uncovered evidence that species might possess specific cognitive abilities potentially adapted to their niche with respect to quantity information (discrete and/or continuous) and the processing system used when judging quantities. Importantly, our results highlight the need for testing multiple species using similar testing procedures to gain a better understanding of the underlying causes leading to differences across species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birgit Szabo
- Division of Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Wohlenstrasse 50a, 3032 Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Daniel W A Noble
- Division of Ecology and Evolution, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Kaitlin J McCloghry
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Marco E S Monteiro
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Martin J Whiting
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
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13
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Corliss M, Brown T, Hurly TA, Healy SD, Tello-Ramos MC. Estimating on the fly: The approximate number system in rufous hummingbirds (Selasphorus rufus). Learn Behav 2021; 49:67-75. [PMID: 33319341 PMCID: PMC7979633 DOI: 10.3758/s13420-020-00448-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
When presented with resources that differ in quantity, many animals use a numerosity system to discriminate between them. One taxonomically widespread system is the approximate number system. This is a numerosity system that allows the rapid evaluation of the number of objects in a group and which is regulated by Weber's Law. Here we investigated whether wild, free-living rufous hummingbirds (Selasphorus rufus) possess an approximate number system. The hummingbirds were presented with two experiments. In the first we investigated whether hummingbirds spontaneously chose an array containing more flowers than an alternate array. In the second we asked whether the hummingbirds could learn to use numerosity as a cue to which of two arrays contained the better reward. The birds did not spontaneously prefer an array containing more flowers. After minimal training, however, they learned to choose the more numerous array and could differentiate between arrays of five and seven flowers. These data support the presence of an approximate number system in the rufous hummingbird. It seems plausible that having such a system would enable much more efficient foraging in this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mia Corliss
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, KY16 9TH, UK
| | - Theo Brown
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, KY16 9TH, UK
| | - T Andrew Hurly
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada
| | - Susan D Healy
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, KY16 9TH, UK.
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14
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MaBouDi H, Barron AB, Li S, Honkanen M, Loukola OJ, Peng F, Li W, Marshall JAR, Cope A, Vasilaki E, Solvi C. Non-numerical strategies used by bees to solve numerical cognition tasks. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20202711. [PMID: 33593192 PMCID: PMC7934903 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.2711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined how bees solve a visual discrimination task with stimuli commonly used in numerical cognition studies. Bees performed well on the task, but additional tests showed that they had learned continuous (non-numerical) cues. A network model using biologically plausible visual feature filtering and a simple associative rule was capable of learning the task using only continuous cues inherent in the training stimuli, with no numerical processing. This model was also able to reproduce behaviours that have been considered in other studies indicative of numerical cognition. Our results support the idea that a sense of magnitude may be more primitive and basic than a sense of number. Our findings highlight how problematic inadvertent continuous cues can be for studies of numerical cognition. This remains a deep issue within the field that requires increased vigilance and cleverness from the experimenter. We suggest ways of better assessing numerical cognition in non-speaking animals, including assessing the use of all alternative cues in one test, using cross-modal cues, analysing behavioural responses to detect underlying strategies, and finding the neural substrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- HaDi MaBouDi
- Department of Computer Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 4DP, UK
| | - Andrew B Barron
- Department of Computer Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 4DP, UK.,Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, New South Wales 2109, Australia
| | - Sun Li
- Department of Psychology, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Maria Honkanen
- Ecology and Genetics Research Unit, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - Olli J Loukola
- Ecology and Genetics Research Unit, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
| | - Fei Peng
- Department of Psychology, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenfeng Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource Utilization, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Institute of Zoology, Guangdong Academy of Science, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - James A R Marshall
- Department of Computer Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 4DP, UK
| | - Alex Cope
- Department of Computer Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 4DP, UK
| | - Eleni Vasilaki
- Department of Computer Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S1 4DP, UK
| | - Cwyn Solvi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, New South Wales 2109, Australia.,School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK
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15
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Bisazza A, Gatto E. Continuous versus discrete quantity discrimination in dune snail (Mollusca: Gastropoda) seeking thermal refuges. Sci Rep 2021; 11:3757. [PMID: 33580099 PMCID: PMC7881015 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-82249-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability of invertebrates to discriminate quantities is poorly studied, and it is unknown whether other phyla possess the same richness and sophistication of quantification mechanisms observed in vertebrates. The dune snail, Theba pisana, occupies a harsh habitat characterised by sparse vegetation and diurnal soil temperatures well above the thermal tolerance of this species. To survive, a snail must locate and climb one of the rare tall herbs each dawn and spend the daytime hours in an elevated refuge position. Based on their ecology, we predicted that dune snails would prefer larger to smaller groups of refuges. We simulated shelter choice under controlled laboratory conditions. Snails’ acuity in discriminating quantity of shelters was comparable to that of mammals and birds, reaching the 4 versus 5 item discrimination, suggesting that natural selection could drive the evolution of advanced cognitive abilities even in small-brained animals if these functions have a high survival value. In a subsequent series of experiments, we investigated whether snails used numerical information or based their decisions upon continuous quantities, such as cumulative surface, density or convex hull, which co-varies with number. Though our results tend to underplay the role of these continuous cues, behavioural data alone are insufficient to determine if dune snails were using numerical information, leaving open the question of whether gastropod molluscans possess elementary abilities for numerical processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelo Bisazza
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy.,Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Elia Gatto
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy.
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16
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Caicoya AL, Colell M, Holland R, Ensenyat C, Amici F. Giraffes go for more: a quantity discrimination study in giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis). Anim Cogn 2020; 24:483-495. [PMID: 33128196 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-020-01442-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Revised: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Many species, including humans, rely on an ability to differentiate between quantities to make decisions about social relationships, territories, and food. This study is the first to investigate whether giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) are able to select the larger of two sets of quantities in different conditions, and how size and density affect these decisions. In Task 1, we presented five captive giraffes with two sets containing a different quantity of identical foods items. In Tasks 2 and 3, we also modified the size and density of the food reward distribution. The results showed that giraffes (i) can successfully make quantity judgments following Weber's law, (ii) can reliably rely on size to maximize their food income, and (iii) are more successful when comparing sparser than denser distributions. More studies on different taxa are needed to understand whether specific selective pressures have favored the evolution of these skills in certain taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alvaro L Caicoya
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain. .,Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Montserrat Colell
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | | | - Federica Amici
- Behavioral Ecology Research Group, Institute of Biology, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.,Research Group "Primate Behavioural Ecology", Department of Human Behavior, Ecology and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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17
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Response of male and female domestic chicks to change in the number (quantity) of imprinting objects. Learn Behav 2020; 49:54-66. [PMID: 33025570 PMCID: PMC7979580 DOI: 10.3758/s13420-020-00446-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
When facing two sets of imprinting objects of different numerousness, domestic chicks prefer to approach the larger one. Given that choice for familiar and novel stimuli in imprinting situations is known to be affected by the sex of the animals, we investigated how male and female domestic chicks divide the time spent in the proximity of a familiar versus an unfamiliar number of objects, and how animals interact (by pecking) with these objects. We confirmed that chicks discriminate among the different numerousnesses, but we also showed that females and males behave differently, depending on the degree of familiarity of the objects. When objects in the testing sets were all familiar, females equally explored both sets and pecked at all objects individually. Males instead selectively approached the familiar numerousness and pecked more at it. When both testing sets comprised familiar as well as novel objects, both males and females approached the larger numerousness of familiar objects. However, chicks directed all their pecks toward the novel object within the set. Differences in the behavior of males and females can be accounted for in terms of sex difference in the motivation to reinstate social contact with the familiar objects and to explore novel ones, likely associated with the ecology and the social structure of the species before domestication.
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18
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Does Brain Lateralization Affect the Performance in Binary Choice Tasks? A Study in the Animal Model Danio rerio. Symmetry (Basel) 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/sym12081294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Researchers in behavioral neuroscience commonly observe the behavior of animal subjects in the presence of two alternative stimuli. However, this type of binary choice introduces a potential confound related to side biases. Understanding whether subjects exhibit this bias, and the origin of it (pre-existent or acquired throughout the experimental sessions), is particularly important to interpreting the results. Here, we tested the hypothesis according to which brain lateralization may influence the emergence of side biases in a well-known model of neuroscience, the zebrafish. As a measure of lateralization, individuals were observed in their spontaneous tendencies to monitor a potential predator with either the left or the right eye. Subjects also underwent an operant conditioning task requiring discrimination between two colors placed on the left–right axis. Although the low performance exhibited in the operant conditioning task prevents firm conclusions from being drawn, a positive correlation was found between the direction of lateralization and the tendency to select the stimulus presented on one specific side (e.g., right). The choice for this preferred side did not change throughout the experimental sessions, meaning that this side bias was not the result of the prolonged training. Overall, our study calls for a wider investigation of pre-existing lateralization biases in animal models to set up methodological counterstrategies to test individuals that do not properly work in a binary choice task with stimuli arranged on the left–right axis.
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19
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Nieder A. The Adaptive Value of Numerical Competence. Trends Ecol Evol 2020; 35:605-617. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2020.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Revised: 02/08/2020] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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20
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Gómez-Laplaza LM, Gerlai R. Food Quantity Discrimination in Angelfish ( Pterophyllum scalare): The Role of Number, Density, Size and Area Occupied by the Food Items. Front Behav Neurosci 2020; 14:106. [PMID: 32655384 PMCID: PMC7324792 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2020.00106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Quantity discrimination, the ability to identify, process, and respond to differences in number, has been shown in a variety of animal species and may have fitness value. In fish, the ability to distinguish between numerically different shoals has been well studied. However, little work has been devoted to the investigation of such ability in a foraging context. Nevertheless, angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare) have been previously shown to be able to discriminate numerically different sets of food items, with variables such as size and density of the food items playing important roles in making the choice. Here, we examine the possible role of other numerical and non-numerical variables. Using a spontaneous binary choice task, we contrasted sets of food items differing in specifically controlled ways: (1) different numerical size but equal inter-item distance; (2) different numerical size and different inter-item distance; and (3) identical total contour length and area occupied but different individual food size and inter-food distance between the contrasted food sets. In Experiment 1, angelfish were found to prefer the sets with a large number of food items. In Experiment 2, they preferred the numerically smaller sets with clustered items to the numerically larger sets with scattered items, but only when the sets were in the large number range (10 vs. 5 food items). Finally, in Experiment 3 fish preferred numerically smaller sets with large-sized and scattered food items in the large number range sets. We conclude that food item number, density, and size may not be considered individually by angelfish, but instead, the fish respond to all these factors attempting to maximize energy gained from eating the food while minimizing energy expenditure collecting and/or protecting the food.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Robert Gerlai
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON, Canada
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21
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Santacà M, Lucon-Xiccato T, Agrillo C. The Delboeuf illusion's bias in food choice of teleost fishes: an interspecific study. Anim Behav 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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22
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Santacà M, Agrillo C. Two halves are less than the whole: Evidence of a length bisection bias in fish (Poecilia reticulata). PLoS One 2020; 15:e0233157. [PMID: 32407367 PMCID: PMC7224554 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0233157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The horizontal-vertical (HV) illusion is characterized by a tendency to overestimate the length of vertically-arranged objects. Comparative research is primarily confined to primates, a range of species that, although arboreal, often explore their environment moving along the horizontal axis. Such behaviour may have led to the development of asymmetrical perceptual mechanisms to make relative size judgments of objects placed vertically and horizontally. We observed the susceptibility to the HV illusion in fish, whose ability to swim along the horizontal and vertical plane permits them to scan objects' size equally on both axes. Guppies (Poecilia reticulata) were trained to select the longer orange line to receive a food reward. In the test phase, two arrays, containing two same-sized lines were presented, one horizontally and the other vertically. Black lines were also included in each pattern to generate the perception of an inverted T-shape (where a horizontal line is bisected by a vertical one) or an L-shape (no bisection). No bias was observed in the L-shape, which supports the idea of differential perceptual mechanisms for primates and fish. In the inverted T-shape, guppies estimated the bisected line as shorter, providing the first evidence of a length bisection bias in a fish species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Santacà
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Christian Agrillo
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Padua Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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23
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Santacà M, Agrillo C, Miletto Petrazzini ME, Bisazza A. The ontogeny of continuous quantity discrimination in zebrafish larvae (Danio rerio). Anim Cogn 2020; 23:731-739. [PMID: 32297031 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-020-01384-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Revised: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Several studies have investigated the ontogeny of the capacity to discriminate between discrete numerical information in human and non-human animals. Contrarily, less attention has been devoted to the development of the capacity to discriminate continuous quantities. Recently, we set up a fast procedure for screening continuous quantity abilities in adult individuals of an animal model in neurodevelopmental research, the zebrafish. Two different sized holes are presented in a wall that divides the home tank in two halves and the spontaneous preference of fish for passing through the larger hole is exploited to measure their discrimination ability. We tested zebrafish larvae in the first, second and third week of life varying the relative size of the smaller circle (0.60, 0.75, 0.86, 0.91 area ratio). We found that the number of passages increased across the age. The capacity to discriminate the larger hole decreased as the ratio between the areas increased. No difference in accuracy was found as a function of age. The accuracy of larval zebrafish almost overlaps that found in adults in a previous study, suggesting a limited role of maturation and experience on the ability to estimate areas in this species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Santacà
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Via Venezia 8, 35131, Padua, Italy.
| | - Christian Agrillo
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Via Venezia 8, 35131, Padua, Italy
- Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
| | | | - Angelo Bisazza
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Via Venezia 8, 35131, Padua, Italy
- Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
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24
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Santacà M, Miletto Petrazzini ME, Wilkinson A, Agrillo C. Anisotropy of perceived space in non-primates? The horizontal-vertical illusion in bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) and red-footed tortoises (Chelonoidis carbonaria). Behav Processes 2020; 176:104117. [PMID: 32259624 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2020.104117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2019] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The horizontal-vertical illusion is a size illusion in which two same-sized objects appear to be different if presented on a horizontal or vertical plane, with the vertical one appearing longer. This illusion represents one of the main evidences of the anisotropy of the perceived space of humans, an asymmetrical perception of the object size presented in the vertical and horizontal space. Although this illusion has been widely investigated in humans, there is an almost complete lack of studies in non-human animals. Here we investigated whether reptiles perceive the horizontal-vertical illusion. We tested two reptile species: bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) and red-footed tortoises (Chelonoidis carbonaria). In control trials, two different-sized food strips were presented and animals were expected to choose the longer one. In test trials, animals received two same-sized strips, presented in a spatial arrangement eliciting the illusion. Only bearded dragons significantly preferred the longer strip in control trials; in test trials, bearded dragons selected the strip arranged vertically, suggesting a human-like perception of this pattern, while no clear choice for either array was observed in tortoises. Our results raise the interesting possibility that the anisotropy of perceived space can exists also in a reptile brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Santacà
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Italy; School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK.
| | | | - Anna Wilkinson
- School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK
| | - Christian Agrillo
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Italy; Padua Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Italy
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25
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Miletto Petrazzini ME, Mantese F, Prato-Previde E. Food quantity discrimination in puppies (Canis lupus familiaris). Anim Cogn 2020; 23:703-710. [PMID: 32253517 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-020-01378-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2019] [Revised: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
There is considerable evidence that animals are able to discriminate between quantities. Despite the fact that quantitative skills have been extensively studied in adult individuals, research on their development in early life is restricted to a limited number of species. We, therefore, investigated whether 2-month-old puppies could spontaneously discriminate between different quantities of food items. We used a simultaneous two-choice task in which puppies were presented with three numerical combinations of pieces of food (1 vs. 8, 1 vs. 6 and 1 vs. 4), and they were allowed to select only one option. The subjects chose the larger of the two quantities in the 1 vs. 8 and the 1 vs. 6 combinations but not in the 1 vs. 4 combination. Furthermore, the last quantity the puppies looked at before making their choice and the time spent looking at the larger/smaller amounts of food were predictive of the choices they made. Since adult dogs are capable of discriminating between more difficult numerical contrasts when tested with similar tasks, our findings suggest that the capacity to discriminate between quantities is already present at an early age, but that it is limited to very easy discriminations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fabio Mantese
- Department of Animal and Human Biology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
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26
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Messina A, Potrich D, Schiona I, Sovrano VA, Fraser SE, Brennan CH, Vallortigara G. Response to change in the number of visual stimuli in zebrafish:A behavioural and molecular study. Sci Rep 2020; 10:5769. [PMID: 32238844 PMCID: PMC7113307 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-62608-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidence has shown that a variety of vertebrates, including fish, can discriminate collections of visual items on the basis of their numerousness using an evolutionarily conserved system for approximating numerical magnitude (the so-called Approximate Number System, ANS). Here we combine a habituation/dishabituation behavioural task with molecular biology assays to start investigating the neural bases of the ANS in zebrafish. Separate groups of zebrafish underwent a habituation phase with a set of 3 or 9 small red dots, associated with a food reward. The dots changed in size, position and density from trial to trial but maintained their numerousness, and the overall areas of the stimuli was kept constant. During the subsequent dishabituation test, zebrafish faced a change (i) in number (from 3 to 9 or vice versa with the same overall surface), or (ii) in shape (with the same overall surface and number), or (iii) in size (with the same shape and number). A control group of zebrafish was shown the same stimuli as during the habituation. RT-qPCR revealed that the telencephalon and thalamus were characterized by the most consistent modulation of the expression of the immediate early genes c-fos and egr-1 upon change in numerousness; in contrast, the retina and optic tectum responded mainly to changes in stimulus size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Messina
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy.
| | - Davide Potrich
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Ilaria Schiona
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Valeria Anna Sovrano
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Scott E Fraser
- Michelson Center for Convergent Bioscience, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Caroline H Brennan
- School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University, London, UK
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27
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Food density and preferred quantity: discrimination of small and large numbers in angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare). Anim Cogn 2020; 23:509-522. [PMID: 32009216 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-020-01355-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Many animal species share the ability to discriminate between sets with different quantity of food items. In fish, this ability has rarely been investigated, although findings have been obtained do indicate a preference, as in other animals, for sets with large over small quantities. The role played by food item size has also been found to be important in the discrimination. However, another potentially important non-numerical variable, food density, has not been investigated. In this study, we examined the influence of density (inter-item distance) in the decision-making process of food discrimination in angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare). In a binary choice task, we kept the number and size of food items constant, but contrasted a set containing food items spaced further apart (sparse set) to another set with food items spaced more closely (dense set). We conducted this analysis with sets in the small (3 vs 3 food items) and in the large number range (5 vs 5 food items) and also varied the specific spatial arrangements of the food items in the sets. Contrary to expectations, angelfish showed a preference for the sparse sets over the dense sets in the five vs five contrasts irrespective of the specific spatial arrangement, but exhibited no preference in case of the three vs three contrasts. Subsequently, we slightly lengthened the inter-item distance in the dense sets, and found preference for the dense over the sparse sets. Last, we further examined the potential effect of spatial configuration of the items in the sets, but found no effect of this latter factor. Overall, these results indicate that higher density of the contrasted food item sets significantly influences choice in angelfish, which prefer denser sets if a clear discriminability of each individual item within the sets is provided.
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28
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Miletto Petrazzini ME, Pecunioso A, Dadda M, Agrillo C. Searching for the Critical p of Macphail's Null Hypothesis: The Contribution of Numerical Abilities of Fish. Front Psychol 2020; 11:55. [PMID: 32116895 PMCID: PMC7025564 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
In 1985, Macphail argued that there are no differences among the intellects of non-human vertebrates and that humans display unique cognitive skills because of language. Mathematical abilities represent one of the most sophisticated cognitive skills. While it is unquestionable that humans exhibit impressive mathematical skills associated with language, a large body of experimental evidence suggests that Macphail hypothesis must be refined in this field. In particular, the evidence that also small-brained organisms, such as fish, are capable of processing numerical information challenges the idea that humans display unique cognitive skills. Like humans, fish may take advantage of using continuous quantities (such as the area occupied by the objects) as proxy of number to select the larger/smaller group. Fish and humans also showed interesting similarities in the strategy adopted to learn a numerical rule. Collective intelligence in numerical estimation has been also observed in humans and guppies. However, numerical acuity in humans is considerably higher than that reported in any fish species investigated, suggesting that quantitative but not qualitative differences do exist between humans and fish. Lastly, while it is clear that contextual factors play an important role in the performance of numerical tasks, inter-species variability can be found also when different fish species were tested in comparable conditions, a fact that does not align with the null hypothesis of vertebrate intelligence. Taken together, we believe that the recent evidence of numerical abilities in fish call for a deeper reflection of Macphail's hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Marco Dadda
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Christian Agrillo
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy.,Padua Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
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29
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Size discrimination in adult zebrafish (Danio rerio): Normative data and individual variation. Sci Rep 2020; 10:1164. [PMID: 31980718 PMCID: PMC6981261 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-57813-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Accepted: 01/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
In humans, aging and neurodegenerative diseases have been found to be associated with impairment in both mathematical abilities and estimation of continuous quantities such as size, weight or distance. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) is rapidly becoming a model for human aging and brain disorders but we currently lack any instrument for rapid assessment of quantity estimation abilities in this species. Here we developed a simple method based on spontaneous preference of zebrafish for using the larger available hole to pass an obstacle. We collected a large amount of data from small groups of zebrafish moving between compartments of their tank and we used these normative data to compare the performance of individually tested fish. Zebrafish significantly discriminated size ratios from 0.60 to 0.91 with their performance decreasing while increasing the size ratio between the smaller and the larger hole presented. On average, individually tested fish showed the same performance, but a large inter-individual variability was observed. Test-retest analyses revealed a good reliability of this test, with 0.60 and 0.75 ratios being the most informative. Experience did not affect individual performance, suggesting the suitability of this test to measure the longitudinal changes and the effects of pharmacological treatments on cognitive abilities.
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Everything is subjective under water surface, too: visual illusions in fish. Anim Cogn 2020; 23:251-264. [PMID: 31897795 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-019-01341-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Revised: 12/09/2019] [Accepted: 12/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The study of visual illusions has captured the attention of comparative psychologists since the last century, given the unquestionable advantage of investigating complex perceptual mechanisms with relatively simple visual patterns. To date, the observation of animal behavior in the presence of visual illusions has been largely confined to mammal and bird studies. Recently, there has been increasing interest in investigating fish, too. The attention has been particularly focused on guppies, redtail splitfin and bamboo sharks. Overall, the tested species were shown to experience a human-like perception of different illusory phenomena involving size, number, motion, brightness estimation and illusory contours. However, in some cases, no illusory effects, or evidence for a reverse illusion, were also reported. Here, we review the current state of the art in this field. We conclude that a wider investigation of visual illusions in fish is fundamental to form a broader comprehension of perceptual systems of vertebrates. Furthermore, we believe that this type of investigation could help us to address general important issues in perceptual studies, such as the role of ecology in shaping perceptual systems, the existence of interindividual variability in the visual perception of nonhuman species and the role of cortical activity in the emergence of visual illusions.
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The role of item size on choosing contrasted food quantities in angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare). Sci Rep 2019; 9:15305. [PMID: 31653899 PMCID: PMC6814702 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-51753-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Comparative studies on quantity discrimination in animals are important for understanding potential evolutionary roots of numerical competence. A previous study with angelfish has shown that they discriminate numerically different sets of same-sized food items and prefer the larger set. However, variables that covary with number were not controlled and choice could have been influenced by variables such as size or density of the food items rather than numerical attributes. Here using a recently developed approach, we examined whether contour length of the food items affects choice in a spontaneous binary choice task. In Experiment 1, a contrast of 1 vs. 1 food item was presented, but the ratio between the size (diameter) of the food items was varied. In Experiment 2, numerically different food sets were equated in overall size by increasing the size (diameter) of the items in the numerically small sets. In both Experiments, subjects showed a preference for the larger sized food items with a discrimination limit. These results show that item size plays a prominent role in foraging decisions in angelfish. Experiment 3 placed numerical and size attributes of the sets in conflict by presenting one larger-sized food item in the numerically smaller set that also had smaller overall size (diameter) of food items. Angelfish showed no preference in any of the contrasts, suggesting that they could not make optimal foraging decisions when these attributes were in conflict. Maximization of energy return is central to optimal foraging. Accordingly, here item size was also found to be a key feature of the sets, although the numerical attributes of the sets also influenced the choice.
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Howard SR, Avarguès-Weber A, Garcia JE, Greentree AD, Dyer AG. Surpassing the subitizing threshold: appetitive–aversive conditioning improves discrimination of numerosities in honeybees. J Exp Biol 2019; 222:222/19/jeb205658. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.205658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Animals including humans, fish and honeybees have demonstrated a quantity discrimination threshold at four objects, often known as subitizing elements. Discrimination between numerosities at or above the subitizing range is considered a complex capacity. In the current study, we trained and tested two groups of bees on their ability to differentiate between quantities (4 versus 5 through to 4 versus 8) when trained with different conditioning procedures. Bees trained with appetitive (reward) differential conditioning demonstrated no significant learning of this task, and limited discrimination above the subitizing range. In contrast, bees trained using appetitive–aversive (reward–aversion) differential conditioning demonstrated significant learning and subsequent discrimination of all tested comparisons from 4 versus 5 to 4 versus 8. Our results show conditioning procedure is vital to performance on numerically challenging tasks, and may inform future research on numerical abilities in other animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scarlett R. Howard
- Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition Animale, Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, 31400 Toulouse, France
- Bio-inspired Digital Sensing (BIDS) Lab, School of Media and Communication, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Aurore Avarguès-Weber
- Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition Animale, Centre de Biologie Intégrative (CBI), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, 31400 Toulouse, France
| | - Jair E. Garcia
- Bio-inspired Digital Sensing (BIDS) Lab, School of Media and Communication, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Andrew D. Greentree
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale BioPhotonics, School of Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Adrian G. Dyer
- Bio-inspired Digital Sensing (BIDS) Lab, School of Media and Communication, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
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Affiliation(s)
- Elia Gatto
- Department of General Psychology University of Padua Padua Italy
- Department of Biological and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological and Chemical Sciences Queen Mary University of London London UK
| | - Daniele Carlesso
- Department of General Psychology University of Padua Padua Italy
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Gatto E, Agrillo C, Brown C, Dadda M. Individual differences in numerical skills are influenced by brain lateralization in guppies (Poecilia reticulata). INTELLIGENCE 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2019.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Lucon-Xiccato T, Gatto E, Bisazza A. Male and female guppies differ in problem-solving abilities. Curr Zool 2019; 66:83-90. [PMID: 32467708 PMCID: PMC7245009 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoz017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
In a number of species, males and females have different ecological roles and therefore might be required to solve different problems. Studies on humans have suggested that the 2 sexes often show different efficiencies in problem-solving tasks; similarly, evidence of sex differences has been found in 2 other mammalian species. Here, we assessed whether a teleost fish species, the guppy, Poecilia reticulata, displays sex differences in the ability to solve problems. In Experiment 1, guppies had to learn to dislodge a disc that occluded a feeder from which they had been previously accustomed to feed. In Experiment 2, guppies had to solve a version of the detour task that required them to learn to enter a transparent cylinder from the open sides to reach a food reward previously freely available. We found evidence of sex differences in both problem-solving tasks. In Experiment 1, females clearly outperformed males, and in Experiment 2, guppies showed a reversed but smaller sex difference. This study indicates that sex differences may play an important role in fish’s problem-solving similar to what has previously been observed in some mammalian species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyrone Lucon-Xiccato
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Elia Gatto
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Angelo Bisazza
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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Lucon-Xiccato T, Bertolucci C. Guppies show rapid and lasting inhibition of foraging behaviour. Behav Processes 2019; 164:91-99. [PMID: 31002840 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2019.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2018] [Revised: 03/19/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
To cope with the variable environment, animals are continuously required to learn novel behaviours or, in certain cases, to inhibit automatic and previously learned behaviours. Traditionally, inhibition has been regarded as cognitively demanding and studied mostly in primates, other mammals and birds, using laboratory tasks, such as the cylinder task. Recent studies have also revealed that fish show high levels of inhibition in the cylinder task. However, conclusions on such results are undermined by evidence that the cylinder task may be inappropriate to compare such phylogenetically distant species. Here, we studied whether a fish, the guppy, Poecilia reticulata, could learn to inhibit behaviour using a different paradigm, which exploited spontaneous foraging behaviour and overcame some drawbacks that characterised the cylinder task. We exposed guppies to live brine shrimp nauplii, Artemia salina, enclosed within a transparent tube. Initially, the guppies attempted to attack the prey but over time showed a rapid decrease of the attacks. Control tests seemed to exclude the possibility that this behavioural trend was due to response to novelty or habituation, and suggested that the guppies were learning to inhibit the foraging behaviour. Memory tests indicated that guppies retained the inhibition of foraging behaviour for at least 24 h. Our study seems to indicate that teleost fish display rapid and durable inhibition of spontaneous foraging behaviour; this may be related to previous evidence, from the cylinder task, supporting efficient behavioural inhibition in this taxon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyrone Lucon-Xiccato
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy.
| | - Cristiano Bertolucci
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
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Lucon-Xiccato T, Santacà M, Miletto Petrazzini ME, Agrillo C, Dadda M. Guppies, Poecilia reticulata, perceive a reversed Delboeuf illusion. Anim Cogn 2019; 22:291-303. [DOI: 10.1007/s10071-019-01237-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2018] [Revised: 01/07/2019] [Accepted: 01/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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Balestrieri A, Gazzola A, Pellitteri-Rosa D, Vallortigara G. Discrimination of group numerousness under predation risk in anuran tadpoles. Anim Cogn 2019; 22:223-230. [DOI: 10.1007/s10071-019-01238-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2018] [Revised: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Gatto E, Lucon-Xiccato T, Bisazza A. Factors affecting the measure of inhibitory control in a fish (Poecilia reticulata). Behav Processes 2018; 157:11-17. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2018.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Revised: 08/12/2018] [Accepted: 08/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Xiong W, Yi LC, Tang Z, Zhao X, Fu SJ. Quantity discrimination in fish species: fish use non-numerical continuous quantity traits to select shoals. Anim Cogn 2018; 21:813-820. [PMID: 30242668 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-018-1214-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2018] [Revised: 09/03/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Fish typically prefer to live in big shoals due to the associated ecological benefits. Shoaling is a behavior that depends on the ability to quantitatively discriminate. The fundamental mechanism involved in quantity discrimination determines whether fish can discriminate a shoal using numerical discrete cues (e.g., number of shoal members), non-numerical continuous traits (e.g., total body surface area) or both; however, the mechanism is currently a controversial topic. In the present study, we used a spontaneous choice experiment to test whether guppy (Poecilia reticulata), zebrafish (Danio rerio), Chinese crucian carp (Carassius auratus) and qingbo (Spinibarbus sinensis) rely on continuous (i.e., body surface area) or discrete (i.e., number of shoal members) information for shoal selection by altering the body surface area (cumulative body surface area ratio of 3:2 or 1:1) between two stimulus shoals with a different number of members (2 individuals vs 3 individuals). All four fish species preferred to shoal with the stimulus shoal with the larger cumulative surface area even if the shoal had fewer members; however, fish showed no shoal preference when the cumulative surface body areas of both stimulus shoals were equal. Furthermore, qingbo did not numerically discriminate between a shoal with 1 individual and a shoal with 3 individuals when the cumulative surface areas of both stimulus shoals were equal; however, qingbo showed a preference for the shoal with the larger cumulative surface area when the two stimulus shoals each had 3 individuals. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that all four fish species relied only on non-numerical continuous quantity information for shoal selection, at least under a difficult task (i.e., 2 vs 3).
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Xiong
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Physiology and Behavior, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Animal Biology, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331, China
| | - Lian-Chun Yi
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Physiology and Behavior, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Animal Biology, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331, China
| | - Zhonghua Tang
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Physiology and Behavior, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Animal Biology, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331, China
| | - Xin Zhao
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Physiology and Behavior, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Animal Biology, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331, China
| | - Shi-Jian Fu
- Laboratory of Evolutionary Physiology and Behavior, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Animal Biology, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, 401331, China.
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Quantity discrimination in angelfish, Pterophyllum scalare: a novel approach with food as the discriminant. Anim Behav 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Lucon-Xiccato T, Gatto E, Bisazza A. Fish perform like mammals and birds in inhibitory motor control tasks. Sci Rep 2017; 7:13144. [PMID: 29030593 PMCID: PMC5640690 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-13447-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2017] [Accepted: 09/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Inhibitory control is an executive function that positively predicts performance in several cognitive tasks and has been considered typical of vertebrates with large and complex nervous systems such as primates. However, evidence is growing that some fish species have evolved complex cognitive abilities in spite of their relatively small brain size. We tested whether fish might also show enhanced inhibitory control by subjecting guppies, Poecilia reticulata, to the motor task used to test warm-blooded vertebrates. Guppies were trained to enter a horizontal opaque cylinder to reach a food reward; then, the cylinder was replaced by a transparent one, and subjects needed to inhibit the response to pass thought the transparency to reach the food. Guppies performed correctly in 58% trials, a performance fully comparable to that observed in most birds and mammals. In experiment 2, we tested guppies in a task with a different type of reward, a group of conspecifics. Guppies rapidly learned to detour a transparent barrier to reach the social reward with a performance close to that of experiment 1. Our study suggests that efficient inhibitory control is shown also by fish, and that its variation between-species is only partially explained by variation in brain size.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elia Gatto
- Dipartimento di Psicologia Generale, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Angelo Bisazza
- Dipartimento di Psicologia Generale, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
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44
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Miletto Petrazzini ME, Wynne CDL. Quantity discrimination in canids: Dogs (Canis familiaris) and wolves (Canis lupus) compared. Behav Processes 2017; 144:89-92. [PMID: 28899810 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2017.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2017] [Revised: 08/09/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Accumulating evidence indicates that animals are able to discriminate between quantities. Recent studies have shown that dogs' and coyotes' ability to discriminate between quantities of food items decreases with increasing numerical ratio. Conversely, wolves' performance is not affected by numerical ratio. Cross-species comparisons are difficult because of differences in the methodologies employed, and hence it is still unclear whether domestication altered quantitative abilities in canids. Here we used the same procedure to compare pet dogs and wolves in a spontaneous food choice task. Subjects were presented with two quantities of food items and allowed to choose only one option. Four numerical contrasts of increasing difficulty (range 1-4) were used to assess the influence of numerical ratio on the performance of the two species. Dogs' accuracy was affected by numerical ratio, while no ratio effect was observed in wolves. These results align with previous findings and reinforce the idea of different quantitative competences in dogs and wolves. Although we cannot exclude that other variables might have played a role in shaping quantitative abilities in these two species, our results might suggest that the interspecific differences here reported may have arisen as a result of domestication.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Clive D L Wynne
- Arizona State University, Department of Psychology, Tempe, AZ, USA
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45
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Miletto Petrazzini ME, Bisazza A, Agrillo C, Lucon-Xiccato T. Sex differences in discrimination reversal learning in the guppy. Anim Cogn 2017; 20:1081-1091. [PMID: 28791553 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-017-1124-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2017] [Revised: 07/31/2017] [Accepted: 08/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
In several mammalian and avian species, females show a higher performance than males in tasks requiring cognitive flexibility such as the discrimination reversal learning. A recent study showed that female guppies are twice as efficient as males in a reversal learning task involving yellow-red discrimination, suggesting a higher cognitive flexibility in female guppies. However, the possibility exists that the superior performance exhibited by females does not reflect a general sex difference in cognitive abilities, but instead, is confined to colour discrimination tasks. To address this issue, we compared male and female guppies in two different discrimination reversal learning tasks and we performed a meta-analysis of these experiments and the previous one involving colour discrimination. In the first experiment of this study, guppies were tested in a task requiring them to learn to select the correct arm of a T-maze in order to rejoin a group of conspecifics. In experiment 2, guppies were observed in a numerical task requiring them to discriminate between 5 and 10 dots in order to obtain a food reward. Although females outperformed males in one condition of the T-maze, we did not find any clear evidence of females' greater reversal learning performance in either experiment. However, the meta-analysis of the three experiments supported the hypothesis of females' greater reversal learning ability. Our data do not completely exclude the idea that female guppies have a generally higher cognitive flexibility than males; however, they suggest that the size of this sex difference might depend on the task.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Angelo Bisazza
- Dipartimento di Psicologia Generale, Università di Padova, Via Venezia 8, 35131, Padua, Italy
| | - Christian Agrillo
- Dipartimento di Psicologia Generale, Università di Padova, Via Venezia 8, 35131, Padua, Italy
| | - Tyrone Lucon-Xiccato
- Dipartimento di Psicologia Generale, Università di Padova, Via Venezia 8, 35131, Padua, Italy
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DeLong CM, Barbato S, O’Leary T, Wilcox KT. Small and large number discrimination in goldfish (Carassius auratus) with extensive training. Behav Processes 2017; 141:172-183. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2016.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2016] [Revised: 11/21/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Gómez-Laplaza LM, Caicoya ÁL, Gerlai R. Quantity discrimination in angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare) is maintained after a 30-s retention interval in the large but not in the small number range. Anim Cogn 2017. [PMID: 28620776 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-017-1104-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The ability to discriminate between sets that differ in the number of elements can be useful in different contexts and may have survival and fitness consequences. As such, numerical/quantity discrimination has been demonstrated in a diversity of animal species. In the laboratory, this ability has been analyzed, for example, using binary choice tests. Furthermore, when the different number of items first presented to the subjects are subsequently obscured, i.e., are not visible at the moment of making a choice, the task requires memory for the size of the sets. In previous work, angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare) have been found to be able to discriminate shoals differing in the number of shoal members both in the small (less than 4) and the large (4 or more) number range, and they were able to perform well even when a short memory retention interval (2-15 s) was imposed. In the current study, we increased the retention interval to 30 s during which the shoals to choose between were obscured, and investigated whether angelfish could show preference for the larger shoal they saw before this interval. Subjects were faced with a discrimination between numerically small shoals (≤4 fish) and also between numerically large (≥4 fish) shoals of conspecifics. We found angelfish not to be able to remember the location of larger versus smaller shoals in the small number range, but to exhibit significant memory for the larger shoal in the large number range as long as the ratio between these shoals was at least 2:1. These results, together with prior findings, suggest the existence of two separate quantity estimation systems, the object file system for small number of items that does not work with the longer retention interval and the analogue magnitude system for larger number of items that does.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis M Gómez-Laplaza
- Department of Psychology, University of Oviedo, Plaza de Feijoo s/n, 33003, Oviedo, Spain.
| | - Álvaro L Caicoya
- Department of Psychology, University of Oviedo, Plaza de Feijoo s/n, 33003, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Robert Gerlai
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, 3359 Mississauga Road North, Mississauga, ON, L5L 1C6, Canada
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Ruusuvirta T, Railo H. Judging Total Volumes Of Silhouetted Spheres In Different Numerosities. Perception 2017; 46:1183-1193. [PMID: 28566015 DOI: 10.1177/0301006617711063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Volume and number are addressed separately rather than combined in perception research. Yet, our everyday problems often involve summed continuous volumes of countable solid objects with partial depth cues (e.g., food items). The participants were presented with a set of black-and-white silhouettes of spheres that independently varied in numerosity (from 1 to 6) and total volume (2, 4, 6, or 8), and an adjacent silhouette of a partially filled cylinder. They judged how much the silhouetted sphere(s) in the set would raise the level of the cylinder content if the spheres were immersed into that content. Higher total volumes and numerosities of the spheres were judged slower and underestimated. Lower total volumes and numerosities were judged faster and overestimated. These effects strongly reflected the total silhouette area of the spheres in a set. The discontinuous effect of numerosity on judgment accuracy and speed suggested separate judgment modes below and above Numerosity 3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timo Ruusuvirta
- Department of Teacher Education, Faculty of Education, University of Turku, Rauma, Finland
| | - Henry Railo
- Department of Psychology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
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Miletto Petrazzini ME, Fraccaroli I, Gariboldi F, Agrillo C, Bisazza A, Bertolucci C, Foà A. Quantitative abilities in a reptile ( Podarcis sicula). Biol Lett 2017; 13:rsbl.2016.0899. [PMID: 28404818 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2016.0899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2016] [Accepted: 03/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to identify the largest amount of prey available is fundamental for optimizing foraging behaviour in several species. To date, this cognitive skill has been observed in all vertebrate groups except reptiles. In this study we investigated the spontaneous ability of ruin lizards to select the larger amount of food items. In Experiment 1, lizards proved able to select the larger food item when presented with two alternatives differing in size (0.25, 0.50, 0.67 and 0.75 ratio). In Experiment 2 lizards presented with two groups of food items (1 versus 4, 2 versus 4, 2 versus 3 and 3 versus 4 items) were unable to select the larger group in any contrast. The lack of discrimination in the presence of multiple items represents an exception in numerical cognition studies, raising the question as to whether reptiles' quantitative abilities are different from those of other vertebrate groups.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Isabel Fraccaroli
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Francesco Gariboldi
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Christian Agrillo
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Angelo Bisazza
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Cristiano Bertolucci
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Augusto Foà
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
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50
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