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Bryant KJ, Rodgers EW. Disruption in cortisol synchrony and pair-dissolution in the serially monogamous convict cichlid (Amatitlania nigrofasciata). Gen Comp Endocrinol 2024; 357:114589. [PMID: 39025240 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2024.114589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Revised: 07/09/2024] [Accepted: 07/13/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024]
Abstract
Endocrine synchronization is a biological process often associated with social bonding. The mechanisms that mediate this process have been well studied in many vertebrate clades with evolved complex social behaviors. However, studies focusing on such processes in the less neurologically complex teleost clade are surprisingly lacking. In this study, we investigated the hypothesis that mated pairs of convict cichlids (Amatitlania nigrofasciata) perform cortisol synchronization and that the disruption of this might accompany pair-bond instability. Mated pairs were subjected to both behavioral and non-invasive waterborne hormonal assays to better understand the biological complexity of endocrine synchrony and its role in pair-bonding. Baseline cortisol assays indicated a positive correlation between male and female cortisol levels. Individuals that were subjected to a prolonged separation from their mate exhibited a negative correlation in cortisol synchrony after being reunited with their mate. Cortisol synchrony was disrupted, but pairs did not show a significant variance of intrapair aggression after initial pair reunion. However, more than half of the pairs that received the stressor exhibited significantly higher levels of intrapair aggression than their time matched controls approximately 1-7 days following this reunion, indicating pair-dissolution. Concurrently, pairs who underwent the stressor but maintained their bonds did not display an increase in intrapair aggression and also re-synchronized their cortisol levels. Not only does this study provide crucial insights in regard to the role of cortisol synchrony in serially monogamous systems, but it also suggests that the mechanisms that mediate the synchronization of endocrine through the formation of social bonds are more evolutionarily conserved than originally thought.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiedon J Bryant
- Georgia State University, Department of Biology, 145 Piedmont Ave SE, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA; Texas A&M University, Department of Biology, Butler Hall, 100, 525 Lubbock St, College Station, TX 77843, USA.
| | - Edmund W Rodgers
- Georgia State University, Department of Biology, 145 Piedmont Ave SE, Atlanta, GA 30303, USA
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2
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Similarity of locomotor personality trait within parents improves their reproduction in the common vole (Microtus arvalis) under laboratory conditions. MAMMAL RES 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s13364-022-00649-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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3
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Female Java sparrows prefer high exploratory males without assortative mating. Behav Processes 2022; 200:104671. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2022.104671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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4
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Fuss T. Mate Choice, Sex Roles and Sexual Cognition in Vertebrates: Mate Choice Turns Cognition or Cognition Turns Mate Choice? Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.749495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The idea of “smart is sexy,” meaning superior cognition provides competitive benefits in mate choice and, therefore, evolutionary advantages in terms of reproductive fitness, is both exciting and captivating. Cognitively flexible individuals perceive and adapt more dynamically to (unpredictable) environmental changes. The sex roles that females and males adopt within their populations can vary greatly in response to the prevalent mating system. Based on how cognition determines these grossly divergent sex roles, different selection pressures could possibly shape the (progressive) evolution of cognitive abilities, suggesting the potential to induce sexual dimorphisms in superior cognitive abilities. Associations between an individual’s mating success, sexual traits and its cognitive abilities have been found consistently across vertebrate species and taxa, providing evidence that sexual selection may well shape the supporting cognitive prerequisites. Yet, while superior cognitive abilities provide benefits such as higher feeding success, improved antipredator behavior, or more favorable mate choice, they also claim costs such as higher energy levels and metabolic rates, which in turn may reduce fecundity, growth, or immune response. There is compelling evidence in a variety of vertebrate taxa that females appear to prefer skilled problem-solver males, i.e., they prefer those that appear to have better cognitive abilities. Consequently, cognition is also likely to have substantial effects on sexual selection processes. How the choosing sex assesses the cognitive abilities of potential mates has not been explored conclusively yet. Do cognitive skills guide an individual’s mate choice and does learning change an individual’s mate choice decisions? How and to which extent do individuals use their own cognitive skills to assess those of their conspecifics when choosing a mate? How does an individual’s role within a mating system influence the choice of the choosing sex in this context? Drawing on several examples from the vertebrate world, this review aims to elucidate various aspects associated with cognitive sex differences, the different roles of males and females in social and sexual interactions, and the potential influence of cognition on mate choice decisions. Finally, future perspectives aim to identify ways to answer the central question of how the triad of sex, cognition, and mate choice interacts.
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5
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Kwek BZW, Tan M, Yu L, Zhou W, Chang CC, Li D. Aggressive males are more attractive to females and more likely to win contests in jumping spiders. Anim Behav 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2021.06.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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6
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Kniel N, Godin JJ. Does individual personality predict male mating preference for female body size in the Trinidadian guppy? Ethology 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.13077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nina Kniel
- Department of Biology Carleton University Ottawa ON Canada
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7
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You're Just My Type: Mate Choice and Behavioral Types. Trends Ecol Evol 2020; 35:823-833. [PMID: 32451175 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2020.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2019] [Revised: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Consistent individual differences in behavior [i.e., behavioral types (BTs)], are common across the animal kingdom. Consistency can make behavior an adaptive trait for mate choice decisions. Here, we present a conceptual framework to explain how and why females might evaluate a male's BT before mating. Because BTs are consistent across time or context, a male's BT can be a reliable indicator of his potential to provide direct benefits. Heritable BTs can enable informed mate choice via indirect benefits. Many key issues regarding patterns of mate choice, including sensory biases, context dependence, and assortative mating apply to BT-dependent mate choice. Understanding the relationship between BTs and mate choice may offer insights into patterns of variation and consistency common in behavioral traits.
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8
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Scherer U, Godin JGJ, Schuett W. Do female rainbow kribs choose males on the basis of their apparent aggression and boldness? A non-correlational mate choice study. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-019-2794-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Consistent between-individual differences in behaviour, known as personality differences, are heritable and have consequences for individual survival and reproductive success. Therefore, it is likely that personality differences are not just under natural but also under sexual selection. Indeed, the recently developed idea that individuals choose their mate based on its personality finds empirical support. However, most studies on mate choice based on personality traits are correlative pioneering work and there is a paucity of experimental studies that test for causality by disentangling personality measures from other, potentially correlated traits that may be important during mate choice. Here, we tested female preference for the apparent level and consistency of either male aggression (measured as mean distance of approach towards an animated opponent, manipulated by locating males at a fixed distance) or male boldness (measured as activity under a simulated predation threat, manipulated using a gradient in ambient water temperature) in a bi-parental West African cichlid, Pelvicachromis pulcher. Females could observe the apparent behaviour of paired stimulus males and were allowed to choose between the two stimulus males in a subsequent choice test. We found no direct effect of male apparent aggression/boldness on female choice, but an indirect effect such that female preference for the apparently bold male increased with increasing within-male pair contrast in their apparent level of boldness. Our results indicate females consider male boldness per se during mate choice, suggesting male boldness is sexually selected in our study species.
Significance statement
Ever since Darwin introduced the concept of sexual selection, female choice has been studied extensively. However, the hypothesis that consistent between-individual differences in behaviour (known as personality differences) affect mate choice is relatively new. Correlative studies support this idea but provide only suggestive evidence. Here, we used behavioural manipulations in order to disentangle male behaviour from other, potentially correlated male traits, allowing us to test for causality between female choice and personality differences in male aggression and boldness (both in level and consistency of behaviour) in a bi-parental cichlid. We found no overall female preference for male apparent behaviour, but female preference for the bold-appearing male increased with increasing between-male contrast in apparent boldness. Our results indicate a causal link between female choice and male boldness. In future, behavioural manipulations using a temperature gradient could provide further valuable insights.
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McLean AR, Du SN, Choi JA, Culbert BM, McCallum ES, Scott GR, Balshine S. Proximity to wastewater effluent alters behaviour in bluegill sunfish (Lepomis machrochirus). BEHAVIOUR 2019. [DOI: 10.1163/1568539x-00003576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Wastewater from municipal, agricultural and industrial sources is a pervasive contaminant of aquatic environments worldwide. Most studies that have investigated the negative impacts of wastewater on organisms have taken place in a laboratory. Here, we tested whether fish behaviour is altered by exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of wastewater effluent in the field. We caged bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) for 28 days at two sites downstream (adjacent to and 870 m) from a wastewater treatment plant and at a reference site without wastewater inputs. We found that exposed fish had a dampened response to simulated predation compared to unexposed fish, suggesting that fish may be at greater risk of predation after exposure to wastewater effluent. Fish held at the different sites did not differ in activity and exploration. Our results suggest that predator avoidance may be impaired in fish exposed to wastewater effluent, which could have detrimental implications for aquatic communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrienne R. McLean
- aDepartment of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON, Canada L8S 4K1
| | - Sherry N.N. Du
- bDepartment of Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON, Canada L8S 4K1
| | - Jasmine A. Choi
- bDepartment of Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON, Canada L8S 4K1
| | - Brett M. Culbert
- aDepartment of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON, Canada L8S 4K1
| | - Erin S. McCallum
- aDepartment of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON, Canada L8S 4K1
| | - Graham R. Scott
- bDepartment of Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON, Canada L8S 4K1
| | - Sigal Balshine
- aDepartment of Psychology, Neuroscience & Behaviour, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON, Canada L8S 4K1
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10
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Maiti U, Sadowska ET, ChrzĄścik KM, Koteja P. Experimental evolution of personality traits: open-field exploration in bank voles from a multidirectional selection experiment. Curr Zool 2018; 65:375-384. [PMID: 31413710 PMCID: PMC6688576 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoy068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 12/21/2017] [Accepted: 08/31/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Evolution of complex physiological adaptations could be driven by natural selection acting on behavioral traits. Consequently, animal personality traits and their correlation with physiological traits have become an engaging research area. Here, we applied a unique experimental evolution model-lines of bank voles selected for (A) high exercise-induced aerobic metabolism, (H) ability to cope with low-quality herbivorous diet, and (P) intensity of predatory behavior, that is, traits shaping evolutionary path and diversity of mammals-and asked how the selection affected the voles' personality traits, assessed in an open field test. The A- and P-line voles were more active, whereas the H-line voles were less active, compared those from unselected control lines (C). H-line voles moved slower but on more meandering trajectories, which indicated a more thorough exploration, whereas the A- and P-line voles moved faster and on straighter trajectories. A-line voles showed also an increased escape propensity, whereas P-line voles tended to be bolder. The remarkable correlated responses to the selection indicate a common genetic underlying mechanism of behavioral and physiological traits, and support the paradigm of evolutionary physiology built around the concept of correlated evolution of behavior and physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uttaran Maiti
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa, Kraków, Poland
| | - Edyta T Sadowska
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa, Kraków, Poland
| | - Katarzyna M ChrzĄścik
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa, Kraków, Poland
| | - Paweł Koteja
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa, Kraków, Poland
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11
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Scherer U, Schuett W. No male mate choice for female boldness in a bi-parental West African cichlid, the rainbow krib ( Pelvicachromis pulcher). PeerJ 2018; 6:e5373. [PMID: 30123707 PMCID: PMC6087618 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.5373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Accepted: 07/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In many species, males have a lower reproductive investment than females and are therefore assumed to increase their fitness with a high number of matings rather than by being choosy. However, in bi-parental species, also males heavily invest into reproduction. Here, reproductive success largely depends on costly parental care; with style and amount of parental effort in several cases being associated with personality differences (i.e., consistent between-individual differences in behaviour). Nonetheless, very little is known about the effect of personality differences on (male) mate choice in bi-parental species. Methods In the present study, we tested male mate choice for the level and consistency of female boldness in the rainbow krib, Pelviachromis pulcher, a bi-parental and territorial West African cichlid. Individual boldness was assumed to indicate parental quality because it affects parental defence behaviour. For all males and females, boldness was assessed twice as the activity under simulated predation risk. Mate choice trials were conducted in two steps. First, we let a male observe two females expressing their boldness. Then, the male could choose between these two females in a standard mate choice test. Results We tested for a male preference for behavioural (dis-)similarity vs. a directional preference for boldness but our data support the absence of effects of male and/or female boldness (level and consistency) on male mating preference. Discussion Our results suggest female personality differences in boldness may not be selected for via male mate choice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrike Scherer
- Institute of Zoology, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Wiebke Schuett
- Institute of Zoology, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany.,School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
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12
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Chen BJ, Liu K, Zhou LJ, Gomes-Silva G, Sommer-Trembo C, Plath M. Personality differentially affects individual mate choice decisions in female and male Western mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis). PLoS One 2018; 13:e0197197. [PMID: 29763435 PMCID: PMC5953439 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0197197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2017] [Accepted: 04/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Consistent individual differences in behavioral tendencies (animal personality) can affect individual mate choice decisions. We asked whether personality traits affect male and female mate choice decisions similarly and whether potential personality effects are consistent across different mate choice situations. Using western mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) as our study organism, we characterized focal individuals (males and females) twice for boldness, activity, and sociability/shoaling and found high and significant behavioral repeatability. Additionally, each focal individual was tested in two different dichotomous mate choice tests in which it could choose between computer-animated stimulus fish of the opposite sex that differed in body size and activity levels, respectively. Personality had different effects on female and male mate choice: females that were larger than average showed stronger preferences for large-bodied males with increasing levels of boldness/activity (i.e., towards more proactive personality types). Males that were larger than average and had higher shoaling tendencies showed stronger preferences for actively swimming females. Size-dependent effects of personality on the strength of preferences for distinct phenotypes of potential mating partners may reflect effects of age/experience (especially in females) and social dominance (especially in males). Previous studies found evidence for assortative mate choice based on personality types or hypothesized the existence of behavioral syndromes of individuals’ choosiness across mate choice criteria, possibly including other personality traits. Our present study exemplifies that far more complex patterns of personality-dependent mate choice can emerge in natural systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo-jian Chen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, P.R. China
| | - Kai Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, P.R. China
| | - Lin-jun Zhou
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, P.R. China
| | - Guilherme Gomes-Silva
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, P.R. China
- Department of Geography (“Saude Ambiental”), Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Carolin Sommer-Trembo
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, P.R. China
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, J.W. Goethe University Frankfurt, Max-von-Laue-Straße, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Martin Plath
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, P.R. China
- * E-mail:
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13
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Robart AR, Sinervo B. Parental response to intruder females altered by ornamentation and mate quality in a biparental fish. Behav Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/ary028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ashley R Robart
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California-Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Barry Sinervo
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California-Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
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14
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Pogány Á, Vincze E, Szurovecz Z, Kosztolányi A, Barta Z, Székely T, Riebel K. Personality assortative female mating preferences in a songbird. BEHAVIOUR 2018. [DOI: 10.1163/1568539x-00003500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Consistent individual behavioural differences (‘animal personalities’) are documented across a variety of animal taxa. Sexual selection, especially assortative mating has been suggested as a possible mechanism contributing to the maintenance of different personality types within populations but little is known about non-random pair-formation with respect to personality traits in unconstrained choice tests. We here tested whether female mating preferences were non-random with respect to male and female neophobia in zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata), an important avian model of mate choice and animal personality research. Male and female neophobia was assessed by attaching novel objects to birds’ feeders. Females’ mating preferences were tested with randomly assigned, unfamiliar males in a four-way choice apparatus. Females associated most with males with neophobia scores similar to their own. These results provide evidence that mating preferences and personality traits can covary, supporting evolutionary scenarios of assortative mating contributing to the maintenance of personality traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ákos Pogány
- aDepartment of Ethology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/c, H-1117 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Ernő Vincze
- bMTA-PE Evolutionary Ecology Research Group, University of Pannonia, PO Box 158, H-8201 Veszprém, Hungary
| | - Zita Szurovecz
- aDepartment of Ethology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/c, H-1117 Budapest, Hungary
| | - András Kosztolányi
- cDepartment of Ecology, University of Veterinary Medicine Budapest, Rottenbiller u. 50, H-1077 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Zoltán Barta
- dDepartment of Evolutionary Zoology and Human Biology, University of Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1, H-4032 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Tamás Székely
- dDepartment of Evolutionary Zoology and Human Biology, University of Debrecen, Egyetem tér 1, H-4032 Debrecen, Hungary
- eMilner Centre for Evolution, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Katharina Riebel
- fAnimal Science & Health, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands
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Noguera JC, Metcalfe NB, Monaghan P. Postnatal nutrition influences male attractiveness and promotes plasticity in male mating preferences. Naturwissenschaften 2017; 104:102. [PMID: 29138966 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-017-1524-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2017] [Revised: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 11/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Poor early-life nutrition could reduce adult reproductive success by negatively affecting traits linked to sexual attractiveness such as song complexity. If so, this might favor strategic mate choice, allowing males with less complex songs to tailor their mating tactics to maximize the reproductive benefits. However, this possibility has been ignored in theoretical and empirical studies. By manipulating the micronutrient content of the diet (e.g., low or high) during the postnatal period of male zebra finches, we show for the first time (1) that males reared on a poor (low) micronutrient diet had less complex songs as adults; (2) that these males, in contrast to the high micronutrient diet group, were more selective in their mating strategies, discriminating against those females most likely to reduce their clutch size when paired with males having less complex songs; and (3) that by following different mating strategies, males reared on the contrasting diets obtained similar reproductive benefits. These results suggest that early-life dietary conditions can induce multiple and long-lasting effects on male and female reproductive traits. Moreover, the results seem to reflect a previously unreported case of adaptive plasticity in mate choice in response to a nutritionally mediated reduction in sexual attractiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- José C Noguera
- Departamento de Ecología y Biología Animal, Torre CACTI, Universidad de Vigo, As Lagoas Marcosende, 36310, Vigo, Spain.
| | - Neil B Metcalfe
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Graham Kerr Building, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Pat Monaghan
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Graham Kerr Building, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
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