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Messina A, Potrich D, Perrino M, Sheardown E, Miletto Petrazzini ME, Luu P, Nadtochiy A, Truong TV, Sovrano VA, Fraser SE, Brennan CH, Vallortigara G. Quantity as a Fish Views It: Behavior and Neurobiology. Front Neuroanat 2022; 16:943504. [PMID: 35911657 PMCID: PMC9334151 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2022.943504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
An ability to estimate quantities, such as the number of conspecifics or the size of a predator, has been reported in vertebrates. Fish, in particular zebrafish, may be instrumental in advancing the understanding of magnitude cognition. We review here the behavioral studies that have described the ecological relevance of quantity estimation in fish and the current status of the research aimed at investigating the neurobiological bases of these abilities. By combining behavioral methods with molecular genetics and calcium imaging, the involvement of the retina and the optic tectum has been documented for the estimation of continuous quantities in the larval and adult zebrafish brain, and the contributions of the thalamus and the dorsal-central pallium for discrete magnitude estimation in the adult zebrafish brain. Evidence for basic circuitry can now be complemented and extended to research that make use of transgenic lines to deepen our understanding of quantity cognition at genetic and molecular levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Messina
- Centre for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Davide Potrich
- Centre for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Matilde Perrino
- Centre for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Eva Sheardown
- Centre for Developmental Neurobiology, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, New Hunt’s House, Kings College London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Peter Luu
- Michelson Center for Convergent Bioscience, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Anna Nadtochiy
- Michelson Center for Convergent Bioscience, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Thai V. Truong
- Michelson Center for Convergent Bioscience, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Valeria Anna Sovrano
- Centre for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Scott E. Fraser
- Michelson Center for Convergent Bioscience, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Caroline H. Brennan
- School of Biological and Behavioral Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
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Abstract
Debates have arisen as to whether non-human animals actually can learn abstract non-symbolic numerousness or whether they always rely on some continuous physical aspect of the stimuli, covarying with number. Here, we investigated archerfish (Toxotes jaculatrix) non-symbolic numerical discrimination with accurate control for covarying continuous physical stimulus attributes. Archerfish were trained to select one of two groups of black dots (Exp. 1: 3 vs 6 elements; Exp. 2: 2 vs 3 elements); these were controlled for several combinations of physical variables (elements' size, overall area, overall perimeter, density, and sparsity), ensuring that only numerical information was available. Generalization tests with novel numerical comparisons (2 vs 3, 5 vs 8, and 6 vs 9 in Exp. 1; 3 vs 4, 3 vs 6 in Exp. 2) revealed choice for the largest or smallest numerical group according to the relative number that was rewarded at training. None of the continuous physical variables, including spatial frequency, were affecting archerfish performance. Results provide evidence that archerfish spontaneously use abstract relative numerical information for both small and large numbers when only numerical cues are available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Potrich
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of TrentoRoveretoItaly
| | - Mirko Zanon
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of TrentoRoveretoItaly
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Messina A, Potrich D, Schiona I, Sovrano VA, Vallortigara G. The Sense of Number in Fish, with Particular Reference to Its Neurobiological Bases. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11113072. [PMID: 34827804 PMCID: PMC8614421 DOI: 10.3390/ani11113072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The ability to deal with quantity, both discrete (numerosities) and continuous (spatial or temporal extent) developed from an evolutionarily conserved system for approximating numerical magnitude. Non-symbolic number cognition based on an approximate sense of magnitude has been documented in a variety of vertebrate species, including fish. Fish, in particular zebrafish, are widely used as models for the investigation of the genetics and molecular mechanisms of behavior, and thus may be instrumental to development of a neurobiology of number cognition. We review here the behavioural studies that have permitted to identify numerical abilities in fish, and the current status of the research related to the neurobiological bases of these abilities with special reference to zebrafish. Combining behavioural tasks with molecular genetics, molecular biology and confocal microscopy, a role of the retina and optic tectum in the encoding of continuous magnitude in larval zebrafish has been reported, while the thalamus and the dorso-central subdivision of pallium in the encoding of discrete magnitude (number) has been documented in adult zebrafish. Research in fish, in particular zebrafish, may reveal instrumental for identifying and characterizing the molecular signature of neurons involved in quantity discrimination processes of all vertebrates, including humans. Abstract It is widely acknowledged that vertebrates can discriminate non-symbolic numerosity using an evolutionarily conserved system dubbed Approximate Number System (ANS). Two main approaches have been used to assess behaviourally numerosity in fish: spontaneous choice tests and operant training procedures. In the first, animals spontaneously choose between sets of biologically-relevant stimuli (e.g., conspecifics, food) differing in quantities (smaller or larger). In the second, animals are trained to associate a numerosity with a reward. Although the ability of fish to discriminate numerosity has been widely documented with these methods, the molecular bases of quantities estimation and ANS are largely unknown. Recently, we combined behavioral tasks with molecular biology assays (e.g c-fos and egr1 and other early genes expression) showing that the thalamus and the caudal region of dorso-central part of the telencephalon seem to be activated upon change in numerousness in visual stimuli. In contrast, the retina and the optic tectum mainly responded to changes in continuous magnitude such as stimulus size. We here provide a review and synthesis of these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Messina
- Centre for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, 38068 Rovereto, Italy; (D.P.); (I.S.); (V.A.S.)
- Correspondence: (A.M.); (G.V.)
| | - Davide Potrich
- Centre for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, 38068 Rovereto, Italy; (D.P.); (I.S.); (V.A.S.)
| | - Ilaria Schiona
- Centre for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, 38068 Rovereto, Italy; (D.P.); (I.S.); (V.A.S.)
| | - Valeria Anna Sovrano
- Centre for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, 38068 Rovereto, Italy; (D.P.); (I.S.); (V.A.S.)
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of Trento, 38068 Rovereto, Italy
| | - Giorgio Vallortigara
- Centre for Mind/Brain Sciences, University of Trento, 38068 Rovereto, Italy; (D.P.); (I.S.); (V.A.S.)
- Correspondence: (A.M.); (G.V.)
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Killen SS, Nadler LE, Grazioso K, Cox A, McCormick MI. The effect of metabolic phenotype on sociability and social group size preference in a coral reef fish. Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Shaun S. Killen
- College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine University of Glasgow Glasgow UK
| | - Lauren E. Nadler
- Department of Marine Biology and Aquaculture ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies James Cook University Townsville Qld Australia
| | - Kathryn Grazioso
- Department of Marine Biology and Ecology Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science University of Miami Miami FL USA
| | - Amy Cox
- Biological and Chemical Sciences The University of the West Indies St. Michael Barbados
| | - Mark I. McCormick
- Department of Marine Biology and Aquaculture ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies James Cook University Townsville Qld Australia
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Rainbow trout discriminate 2-D photographs of conspecifics from distracting stimuli using an innovative operant conditioning device. Learn Behav 2021; 49:292-306. [PMID: 33409895 DOI: 10.3758/s13420-020-00453-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Cognitive abilities were studied in rainbow trout, the first continental fish production in Europe. Increasing public concern for the welfare of farmed-fish species highlighted the need for better knowledge of the cognitive status of fish. We trained and tested 15 rainbow trout with an operant conditioning device composed of self-feeders positioned in front of visual stimuli displayed on a screen. The device was coupled with a two-alternative forced-choice (2-AFC) paradigm to test whether rainbow trout can discriminate 2-D photographs of conspecifics (S+) from different visual stimuli (S-). The S- were applied in four stages, the last three stages representing increasing discrimination difficulty: (1) blue shapes; (2) black shape (star); (3) photograph of an object (among a pool of 60); (4) photograph of another fish species (among a pool of 60). Nine fish (out of 15) correctly managed to activate the conditioning device after 30-150 trials. The rainbow trout were able to discriminate images of conspecifics from an abstract shape (five individuals out of five) or objects (four out of five) but not from other fish species. Their ability to learn the category "fish shape" rather than distinguishing between conspecifics and heterospecifics is discussed. The successful visual discrimination task using this complex operant conditioning device is particularly remarkable and novel for this farmed-fish species, and could be exploited to develop cognitive enrichments in future farming systems. This device can also be added to the existing repertoire of testing devices suitable for investigating cognitive abilities in fish.
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Rivas-Blanco D, Pohl IM, Dale R, Heberlein MTE, Range F. Wolves and Dogs May Rely on Non-numerical Cues in Quantity Discrimination Tasks When Given the Choice. Front Psychol 2020; 11:573317. [PMID: 33041945 PMCID: PMC7518719 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.573317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
A wide array of species throughout the animal kingdom has shown the ability to distinguish between quantities. Aside from being important for optimal foraging decisions, this ability seems to also be of great relevance in group-living animals as it allows them to inform their decisions regarding engagement in between-group conflicts based on the size of competing groups. However, it is often unclear whether these animals rely on numerical information alone to make these decisions or whether they employ other cues that may covary with the differences in quantity. In this study, we used a touch screen paradigm to investigate the quantity discrimination abilities of two closely related group-living species, wolves and dogs, using a simultaneous visual presentation paradigm. Both species were able to successfully distinguish between stimuli of different quantities up to 32 items and ratios up to 0.80, and their results were in accordance with Weber’s law (which predicts worse performances at higher ratios). However, our controls showed that both wolves and dogs may have used continuous, non-numerical cues, such as size and shape of the stimuli, in conjunction with the numerical information to solve this task. In line with this possibility, dogs’ performance greatly exceeded that which they had shown in other numerical competence paradigms. We discuss the implications these results may have on these species’ underlying biases and numerical capabilities, as well as how our paradigm may have affected the animals’ ability to solve the task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dániel Rivas-Blanco
- Domestication Lab, Department of Interdisciplinary Life Sciences, Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ina-Maria Pohl
- Clever Dog Lab, Comparative Cognition, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Rachel Dale
- Domestication Lab, Department of Interdisciplinary Life Sciences, Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marianne Theres Elisabeth Heberlein
- Domestication Lab, Department of Interdisciplinary Life Sciences, Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Friederike Range
- Domestication Lab, Department of Interdisciplinary Life Sciences, Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria.,Clever Dog Lab, Comparative Cognition, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.,Wolf Science Center, Ernstbrunn, Austria
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Nieder A. The Adaptive Value of Numerical Competence. Trends Ecol Evol 2020; 35:605-617. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2020.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Revised: 02/08/2020] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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Gómez-Laplaza LM, Gerlai R. Food Quantity Discrimination in Angelfish ( Pterophyllum scalare): The Role of Number, Density, Size and Area Occupied by the Food Items. Front Behav Neurosci 2020; 14:106. [PMID: 32655384 PMCID: PMC7324792 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2020.00106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Quantity discrimination, the ability to identify, process, and respond to differences in number, has been shown in a variety of animal species and may have fitness value. In fish, the ability to distinguish between numerically different shoals has been well studied. However, little work has been devoted to the investigation of such ability in a foraging context. Nevertheless, angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare) have been previously shown to be able to discriminate numerically different sets of food items, with variables such as size and density of the food items playing important roles in making the choice. Here, we examine the possible role of other numerical and non-numerical variables. Using a spontaneous binary choice task, we contrasted sets of food items differing in specifically controlled ways: (1) different numerical size but equal inter-item distance; (2) different numerical size and different inter-item distance; and (3) identical total contour length and area occupied but different individual food size and inter-food distance between the contrasted food sets. In Experiment 1, angelfish were found to prefer the sets with a large number of food items. In Experiment 2, they preferred the numerically smaller sets with clustered items to the numerically larger sets with scattered items, but only when the sets were in the large number range (10 vs. 5 food items). Finally, in Experiment 3 fish preferred numerically smaller sets with large-sized and scattered food items in the large number range sets. We conclude that food item number, density, and size may not be considered individually by angelfish, but instead, the fish respond to all these factors attempting to maximize energy gained from eating the food while minimizing energy expenditure collecting and/or protecting the food.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Robert Gerlai
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON, Canada
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Food density and preferred quantity: discrimination of small and large numbers in angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare). Anim Cogn 2020; 23:509-522. [PMID: 32009216 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-020-01355-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Many animal species share the ability to discriminate between sets with different quantity of food items. In fish, this ability has rarely been investigated, although findings have been obtained do indicate a preference, as in other animals, for sets with large over small quantities. The role played by food item size has also been found to be important in the discrimination. However, another potentially important non-numerical variable, food density, has not been investigated. In this study, we examined the influence of density (inter-item distance) in the decision-making process of food discrimination in angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare). In a binary choice task, we kept the number and size of food items constant, but contrasted a set containing food items spaced further apart (sparse set) to another set with food items spaced more closely (dense set). We conducted this analysis with sets in the small (3 vs 3 food items) and in the large number range (5 vs 5 food items) and also varied the specific spatial arrangements of the food items in the sets. Contrary to expectations, angelfish showed a preference for the sparse sets over the dense sets in the five vs five contrasts irrespective of the specific spatial arrangement, but exhibited no preference in case of the three vs three contrasts. Subsequently, we slightly lengthened the inter-item distance in the dense sets, and found preference for the dense over the sparse sets. Last, we further examined the potential effect of spatial configuration of the items in the sets, but found no effect of this latter factor. Overall, these results indicate that higher density of the contrasted food item sets significantly influences choice in angelfish, which prefer denser sets if a clear discriminability of each individual item within the sets is provided.
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The role of item size on choosing contrasted food quantities in angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare). Sci Rep 2019; 9:15305. [PMID: 31653899 PMCID: PMC6814702 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-51753-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Comparative studies on quantity discrimination in animals are important for understanding potential evolutionary roots of numerical competence. A previous study with angelfish has shown that they discriminate numerically different sets of same-sized food items and prefer the larger set. However, variables that covary with number were not controlled and choice could have been influenced by variables such as size or density of the food items rather than numerical attributes. Here using a recently developed approach, we examined whether contour length of the food items affects choice in a spontaneous binary choice task. In Experiment 1, a contrast of 1 vs. 1 food item was presented, but the ratio between the size (diameter) of the food items was varied. In Experiment 2, numerically different food sets were equated in overall size by increasing the size (diameter) of the items in the numerically small sets. In both Experiments, subjects showed a preference for the larger sized food items with a discrimination limit. These results show that item size plays a prominent role in foraging decisions in angelfish. Experiment 3 placed numerical and size attributes of the sets in conflict by presenting one larger-sized food item in the numerically smaller set that also had smaller overall size (diameter) of food items. Angelfish showed no preference in any of the contrasts, suggesting that they could not make optimal foraging decisions when these attributes were in conflict. Maximization of energy return is central to optimal foraging. Accordingly, here item size was also found to be a key feature of the sets, although the numerical attributes of the sets also influenced the choice.
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