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Crane AL, Feyten LEA, Preagola AA, Ferrari MCO, Brown GE. Uncertainty about predation risk: a conceptual review. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024; 99:238-252. [PMID: 37839808 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
Uncertainty has long been of interest to economists and psychologists and has more recently gained attention among ecologists. In the ecological world, animals must regularly make decisions related to finding resources and avoiding threats. Here, we describe uncertainty as a perceptual phenomenon of decision-makers, and we focus specifically on the functional ecology of such uncertainty regarding predation risk. Like all uncertainty, uncertainty about predation risk reflects informational limitations. When cues are available, they may be novel (i.e. unknown information), incomplete, unreliable, overly abundant and complex, or conflicting. We review recent studies that have used these informational limitations to induce uncertainty of predation risk. These studies have typically used either over-responses to novelty (i.e. neophobia) or memory attenuation as proxies for measuring uncertainty. Because changes in the environment, particularly unpredictable changes, drive informational limitations, we describe studies assessing unpredictable variance in spatio-temporal predation risk, intensity of predation risk, predator encounter rate, and predator diversity. We also highlight anthropogenic changes within habitats that are likely to have dramatic impacts on information availability and thus uncertainty in antipredator decisions in the modern world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam L Crane
- WCVM, Biomedical Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, 52 Campus Dr., Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5B4, Canada
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. W., Montreal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - Laurence E A Feyten
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. W., Montreal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - Alexyz A Preagola
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, 112 Science Pl., Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5E2, Canada
| | - Maud C O Ferrari
- WCVM, Biomedical Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, 52 Campus Dr., Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5B4, Canada
| | - Grant E Brown
- Department of Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. W., Montreal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
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2
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Aben J, Travis JMJ, Van Dyck H, Vanwambeke SO. Integrating learning into animal range dynamics under rapid human-induced environmental change. Ecol Lett 2024; 27:e14367. [PMID: 38361475 DOI: 10.1111/ele.14367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
Human-induced rapid environmental change (HIREC) is creating environments deviating considerably from natural habitats in which species evolved. Concurrently, climate warming is pushing species' climatic envelopes to geographic regions that offer novel ecological conditions. The persistence of species is likely affected by the interplay between the degree of ecological novelty and phenotypic plasticity, which in turn may shape an organism's range-shifting ability. Current modelling approaches that forecast animal ranges are characterized by a static representation of the relationship between habitat use and fitness, which may bias predictions under conditions imposed by HIREC. We argue that accounting for dynamic species-resource relationships can increase the ecological realism of range shift predictions. Our rationale builds on the concepts of ecological fitting, the process whereby individuals form successful novel biotic associations based on the suite of traits they carry at the time of encountering the novel condition, and behavioural plasticity, in particular learning. These concepts have revolutionized our view on fitness in novel ecological settings, and the way these processes may influence species ranges under HIREC. We have integrated them into a model of range expansion as a conceptual proof of principle highlighting the potentially substantial role of learning ability in range shifts under HIREC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Job Aben
- Center for Earth and Climate Research, Earth and Life Institute, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
- Laboratoire Écologie, Systématique et Évolution, Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, AgroParisTech, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- CentraleSupélec, ENS Paris-Saclay, CNRS, LMPS-Laboratoire de Mécanique Paris-Saclay, Université Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- Evolutionary Ecology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Justin M J Travis
- The Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Hans Van Dyck
- Behavioural Ecology and Conservation Group, Earth & Life Institute, UCLouvain, Belgium
| | - Sophie O Vanwambeke
- Center for Earth and Climate Research, Earth and Life Institute, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
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Feyten LEA, Ramnarine IW, Brown GE. Microhabitat conditions drive uncertainty of risk and shape neophobic responses in Trinidadian guppies, Poecilia reticulata. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e10554. [PMID: 37753307 PMCID: PMC10518753 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.10554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2023] [Revised: 09/06/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
In response to uncertain risks, prey may rely on neophobic phenotypes to reduce the costs associated with the lack of information regarding local conditions. Neophobia has been shown to be driven by information reliability, ambient risk and predator diversity, all of which shape uncertainty of risk. We similarly expect environmental conditions to shape uncertainty by interfering with information availability. In order to test how environmental variables might shape neophobic responses in Trinidadian guppies (Poecilia reticulata), we conducted an in situ field experiment of two high-predation risk guppy populations designed to determine how the 'average' and 'variance' of several environmental factors might influence the neophobic response to novel predator models and/or novel foraging patches. Our results suggest neophobia is shaped by water velocity, microhabitat complexity, pool width and depth, as well as substrate diversity and heterogeneity. Moreover, we found differential effects of the 'average' and 'variance' environmental variables on food- and predator-related neophobia. Our study highlights that assessment of neophobic drivers should consider predation risk, various microhabitat conditions and neophobia being tested. Neophobic phenotypes are expected to increase the probability of prey survival and reproductive success (i.e. fitness), and are therefore likely linked to population health and species survival. Understanding the drivers and consequences of uncertainty of risk is an increasingly pressing issue, as ecological uncertainty increases with the combined effects of climate change, anthropogenic disturbances and invasive species.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Indar W. Ramnarine
- Department of Life SciencesThe University of the West IndiesSt. AugustineTrinidad and Tobago
| | - Grant E. Brown
- Department of BiologyConcordia UniversityMontrealQuebecCanada
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Experimental manipulation of food distribution alters social networks and information transmission across environments in a food-caching bird. Anim Behav 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
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5
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Vincze E, Kovács B. Urbanization’s Effects on Problem Solving Abilities: A Meta-Analysis. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.834436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive abilities are often assumed to be advantageous in urban habitats, but relatively few studies tested this assumption. In a meta-analysis, we tested whether urban animals have better problem-solving abilities compared to their less urbanized conspecifics. After screening 210 papers we collected by keyword search and forward search, we found 12 studies that compared the ability to solve food-extraction or obstacle-removal problems between urban and non-urban populations of the same animal species. These studies were published between 2009 and 2021, and were performed mostly on birds, whereas a quarter of them used mammals as study species. We found a statistically non-significant trend that urban animals are more successful and faster problem-solvers compared to their less urbanized conspecifics. However, both solving success and solving latency effect sizes were highly heterogeneous, therefore hard to generalize. Though the sample was too low to test the factors explaining this high heterogeneity, we suggest that it may be explained by variation in task types, study species, definitions of urbanization, whether the study was performed on captive or free-living animals, geographical location, or publication bias in both directions. Altogether, more studies are needed to either confirm or disprove this trend.
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Vultures as an overlooked model in cognitive ecology. Anim Cogn 2021; 25:495-507. [PMID: 34817739 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-021-01585-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Despite important recent advances in cognitive ecology, our current understanding of avian cognition still largely rests on research conducted on a few model taxa. Vultures are an ecologically distinctive group of species by being the only obligate carrion consumers across terrestrial vertebrates. Their unique scavenging lifestyle suggests they have been subject to particular selective pressures to locate scarce, unpredictable, ephemeral, and nutritionally challenging food. However, substantial variation exists among species in diet, foraging techniques and social structure of populations. Here, we provide an overview of the current knowledge on vulture cognition through a comprehensive literature review and a compilation of our own observations. We find evidence for a variety of innovative foraging behaviors, scrounging tactics, collective problem-solving abilities and tool-use, skills that are considered indicative of enhanced cognition and that bear clear connections with the eco-social lifestyles of species. However, we also find that the cognitive basis of these skills remain insufficiently studied, and identify new research areas that require further attention in the future. Despite these knowledge gaps and the challenges of working with such large animals, we conclude that vultures may provide fresh insight into our knowledge of the ecology and evolution of cognition.
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Rochais C, Hotte H, Pillay N. Seasonal variation in reversal learning reveals greater female cognitive flexibility in African striped mice. Sci Rep 2021; 11:20061. [PMID: 34625648 PMCID: PMC8501043 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-99619-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive flexibility describes the ability of animals to alter cognitively mediated behaviour in response to changing situational demands, and can vary according to prevailing environemental conditions and individual caracteristics. In the present study, we investigated (1) how learning and reversal learning performance changes between seasons, and (2) how cognitive flexibility is related to sex in a free-living small mammal. We studied 107 African striped mice, Rhabdomys pumilio, in an arid semi-desert, 58 during the hot dry summer with low food availability, and 49 during the cold wet winter with higher food availability. We used an escape box task to test for learning and reversal learning performance. We found that learning and reversal learning efficiency varied seasonally by sex: females tested in summer were faster at solving both learning and reversal tasks than males tested in winter. Performance varied within sex: males tested in winter showed faster learning compared to males tested in summer. During reversal learning, females tested in summer were more efficient and solve the task faster compared to females tested in winter. We suggest that seasonal cognitive performance could be related to sex-specific behavioural characteristics of the species, resulting in adaptation for living in harsh environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Céline Rochais
- School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
| | - Hoël Hotte
- School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.,ANSES, Plant Health Laboratory - Nematology Unit, Domaine de la Motte Au Vicomte, BP 35327, 35653, Le Rheu Cédex, France
| | - Neville Pillay
- School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
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Rheault H, Anderson CR, Bonar M, Marrotte RR, Ross TR, Wittemyer G, Northrup JM. Some Memories Never Fade: Inferring Multi-Scale Memory Effects on Habitat Selection of a Migratory Ungulate Using Step-Selection Functions. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.702818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding how animals use information about their environment to make movement decisions underpins our ability to explain drivers of and predict animal movement. Memory is the cognitive process that allows species to store information about experienced landscapes, however, remains an understudied topic in movement ecology. By studying how species select for familiar locations, visited recently and in the past, we can gain insight to how they store and use local information in multiple memory types. In this study, we analyzed the movements of a migratory mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) population in the Piceance Basin of Colorado, United States to investigate the influence of spatial experience over different time scales on seasonal range habitat selection. We inferred the influence of short and long-term memory from the contribution to habitat selection of previous space use within the same season and during the prior year, respectively. We fit step-selection functions to GPS collar data from 32 female deer and tested the predictive ability of covariates representing current environmental conditions and both metrics of previous space use on habitat selection, inferring the latter as the influence of memory within and between seasons (summer vs. winter). Across individuals, models incorporating covariates representing both recent and past experience and environmental covariates performed best. In the top model, locations that had been previously visited within the same season and locations from previous seasons were more strongly selected relative to environmental covariates, which we interpret as evidence for the strong influence of both short- and long-term memory in driving seasonal range habitat selection. Further, the influence of previous space uses was stronger in the summer relative to winter, which is when deer in this population demonstrated strongest philopatry to their range. Our results suggest that mule deer update their seasonal range cognitive map in real time and retain long-term information about seasonal ranges, which supports the existing theory that memory is a mechanism leading to emergent space-use patterns such as site fidelity. Lastly, these findings provide novel insight into how species store and use information over different time scales.
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Evans LJ, Smith KE, Raine NE. Odour Learning Bees Have Longer Foraging Careers Than Non-learners in a Natural Environment. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.676289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Individual animals allowed the opportunity to learn generally outperform those prevented from learning, yet, within a species the capacity for learning varies markedly. The evolutionary processes that maintain this variation in learning ability are not yet well understood. Several studies demonstrate links between fitness traits and visual learning, but the selection pressures operating on cognitive traits are likely influenced by multiple sensory modalities. In addition to vision, most animals will use a combination of hearing, olfaction (smell), gustation (taste), and touch to gain information about their environment. Some animals demonstrate individual preference for, or enhanced learning performance using certain senses in relation to particular aspects of their behaviour (e.g., foraging), whereas conspecific individuals may show different preferences. By assessing fitness traits in relation to different sensory modalities we will strengthen our understanding of factors driving observed variation in learning ability. We assessed the relationship between the olfactory learning ability of bumble bees (Bombus terrestris) and their foraging performance in their natural environment. We found that bees which failed to learn this odour-reward association had shorter foraging careers; foraging for fewer days and thus provisioning their colonies with fewer resources. This was not due to a reduced propensity to forage, but may have been due to a reduced ability to return to their colony. When comparing among only individuals that did learn, we found that the rate at which floral resources were collected was similar, regardless of how they performed in the olfactory learning task. Our results demonstrate that an ability to learn olfactory cues can have a positive impact of the foraging performance of B. terrestris in a natural environment, but echo findings of earlier studies on visual learning, which suggest that enhanced learning is not necessarily beneficial for bee foragers provisioning their colony.
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Hermer E, Murphy B, Chaine AS, Morand-Ferron J. Great tits who remember more accurately have difficulty forgetting, but variation is not driven by environmental harshness. Sci Rep 2021; 11:10083. [PMID: 33980907 PMCID: PMC8114932 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-89125-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The causes of individual variation in memory are poorly understood in wild animals. Harsh environments with sparse or rapidly changing food resources are hypothesized to favour more accurate spatial memory to allow animals to return to previously visited patches when current patches are depleted. A potential cost of more accurate spatial memory is proactive interference, where accurate memories block the formation of new memories. This relationship between spatial memory, proactive interference, and harsh environments has only been studied in scatter-hoarding animals. We compare spatial memory accuracy and proactive interference performance of non-scatter hoarding great tits (Parus major) from high and low elevations where harshness increases with elevation. In contrast to studies of scatter-hoarders, we did not find a significant difference between high and low elevation birds in their spatial memory accuracy or proactive interference performance. Using a variance partitioning approach, we report the first among-individual trade-off between spatial memory and proactive interference, uncovering variation in memory at the individual level where selection may act. Although we have no evidence of harsh habitats affecting spatial memory, our results suggest that if elevation produced differences in spatial memory between elevations, we could see concurrent changes in how quickly birds can forget.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ethan Hermer
- grid.28046.380000 0001 2182 2255University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON Canada
| | - Ben Murphy
- grid.7836.a0000 0004 1937 1151University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Alexis S. Chaine
- Station d’Ecologie Théorique et Expérimentale du CNRS, Moulis, France ,grid.424401.70000 0004 0384 0611Institute for Advanced Studies in Toulouse, Toulouse School of Economics, Toulouse, France
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11
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De Meester G, Sfendouraki-Basakarou A, Pafilis P, Van Damme R. Dealing with the unexpected: the effect of environmental variability on behavioural flexibility in a Mediterranean lizard. BEHAVIOUR 2021. [DOI: 10.1163/1568539x-bja10088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/06/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Harsh and variable environments have been hypothesized to both drive and constrain the evolution towards higher cognitive abilities and behavioural flexibility. In this study, we compared the cognitive abilities of island and mainland Aegean wall lizards (Podarcis erhardii), which were expected to live in respectively a more variable and a more stable habitat. We used four proxies of behavioural flexibility: a neophobia assay, a problem-solving test and a spatial + reversal learning task. Surprisingly, the two populations did not differ in neophobia or problem-solving. Insular lizards, however, outperformed mainland conspecifics in an initial spatial learning task, but were less successful during the subsequent reversal learning. Our results thus seem to indicate that the effect of environmental variability on cognition is complex, as it may favour some, but not all aspects of behavioural flexibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilles De Meester
- Department of Biology, Functional Morphology Group, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium
- Department of Biology, Section of Zoology and Marine Biology, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Alkyoni Sfendouraki-Basakarou
- Department of Biology, Section of Zoology and Marine Biology, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Panayiotis Pafilis
- Department of Biology, Section of Zoology and Marine Biology, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Raoul Van Damme
- Department of Biology, Functional Morphology Group, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium
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de Guinea M, Estrada A, Janmaat KR, Nekaris KAI, Van Belle S. Disentangling the importance of social and ecological information in goal-directed movements in a wild primate. Anim Behav 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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13
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Linking ecology and cognition: does ecological specialisation predict cognitive test performance? Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-020-02923-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
AbstractVariation in cognitive abilities is thought to be linked to variation in brain size, which varies across species with either social factors (Social Intelligence Hypothesis) or ecological challenges (Ecological Intelligence Hypothesis). However, the nature of the ecological processes invoked by the Ecological Intelligence Hypothesis, like adaptations to certain habitat characteristics or dietary requirements, remains relatively poorly known. Here, we review comparative studies that experimentally investigated interspecific variation in cognitive performance in relation to a species’ degree of ecological specialisation. Overall, the relevant literature was biased towards studies of mammals and birds as well as studies focusing on ecological challenges related to diet. We separated ecological challenges into those related to searching for food, accessing a food item and memorising food locations. We found interspecific variation in cognitive performance that can be explained by adaptations to different foraging styles. Species-specific adaptations to certain ecological conditions, like food patch distribution, characteristics of food items or seasonality also broadly predicted variation in cognitive abilities. A species’ innovative problem-solving and spatial processing ability, for example, could be explained by its use of specific foraging techniques or search strategies, respectively. Further, habitat generalists were more likely to outperform habitat specialists. Hence, we found evidence that ecological adaptations and cognitive performance are linked and that the classification concept of ecological specialisation can explain variation in cognitive performance only with regard to habitat, but not dietary specialisation.
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Winegard B, Winegard B, Anomaly J. Dodging Darwin: Race, evolution, and the hereditarian hypothesis. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2020.109915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Reichert MS, Crofts SJ, Davidson GL, Firth JA, Kulahci IG, Quinn JL. Multiple factors affect discrimination learning performance, but not between-individual variation, in wild mixed-species flocks of birds. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2020; 7:192107. [PMID: 32431886 PMCID: PMC7211855 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.192107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Cognition arguably drives most behaviours in animals, but whether and why individuals in the wild vary consistently in their cognitive performance is scarcely known, especially under mixed-species scenarios. One reason for this is that quantifying the relative importance of individual, contextual, ecological and social factors remains a major challenge. We examined how many of these factors, and sources of bias, affected participation and performance, in an initial discrimination learning experiment and two reversal learning experiments during self-administered trials in a population of great tits and blue tits. Individuals were randomly allocated to different rewarding feeders within an array. Participation was high and only weakly affected by age and species. In the initial learning experiment, great tits learned faster than blue tits. Great tits also showed greater consistency in performance across two reversal learning experiments. Individuals assigned to the feeders on the edge of the array learned faster. More errors were made on feeders neighbouring the rewarded feeder and on feeders that had been rewarded in the previous experiment. Our estimates of learning consistency were unaffected by multiple factors, suggesting that, even though there was some influence of these factors on performance, we obtained a robust measure of discrimination learning in the wild.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael S. Reichert
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA
- School of Biological Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Sam J. Crofts
- Edward Grey Institute, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Gabrielle L. Davidson
- School of Biological Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Josh A. Firth
- Edward Grey Institute, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Merton College, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Ipek G. Kulahci
- School of Biological Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - John L. Quinn
- School of Biological Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
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