Potential of a gonadotropin-releasing hormone vaccine to suppress musth in captive male Asian elephants (Elephas maximus)

Polyacrylate-GnRH Peptide Conjugate as an Oral Contraceptive Vaccine Candidate

Contraceptive vaccines are designed to elicit immune responses against major components of animal reproductive systems. These vaccines, which are most commonly administered via injection, typically target gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). However, the need to restrain animals for treatment limits the field applications of injectable vaccines. Oral administration would broaden vaccine applicability. We explored contraceptive vaccine candidates composed of GnRH peptide hormone, universal T helper PADRE (P), and a poly(methylacrylate) (PMA)-based delivery system. When self-assembled into nanoparticles, PMA-P-GnRH induced the production of high IgG titers after subcutaneous and oral administration in mice. PADRE was then replaced with pig T helper derived from the swine flu virus, and the vaccine was tested in pigs. High levels of systemic antibodies were produced in pigs after both injection and oral administration of the vaccine. In conclusion, we developed a simple peptide–polymer conjugate that shows promise as an effective, adjuvant-free, oral GnRH-based contraceptive vaccine.

Update on Comparative Biology of Elephants: Factors Affecting Reproduction, Health and Welfare

Asian (Elephas maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants serve as important keystone, umbrella and flagship species. Despite that, population numbers are declining, due mainly to poaching and habitat destruction. Understanding reproductive mechanisms is vital to effective management, particularly insurance populations in captivity, and to that end, long-term biological databases are key to understanding how intrinsic and extrinsic factors affect reproductive function at individual and population levels. Through decades of hormonal and ultrasonographic monitoring, many unique aspects of zoo elephant reproduction have been identified, including differences in luteal steroidogenic activity, follicular maturation, pituitary gonadotropin secretion, fetal development and reproductive tract anatomy. Reproductive problems also hamper captive propagation efforts, particularly those related to abnormal or lack of ovarian cyclicity. Recent large-scale, multi-institutional studies and use of epidemiological approaches have identified factors important for good welfare and reproduction, which include enrichment, feeding diversity, good elephant-keeper relations, social compatibility, exercise, and not being obese. There are notable differences in reproductive mechanisms between Asian and African elephants, as well as the factors that influence reproduction and welfare, suggesting species-targeted management approaches are needed to maximize fitness. In the first edition, we discussed reproductive function in male and female elephants. Since then, a number of significant advances have been made primarily in female elephants, which will be the focus of this updated review.

Effect of time and temperature on stability of progestagens, testosterone and cortisol in Asian elephant blood stored with and without anticoagulant

The value of biological samples collected in the field is compromised if storage conditions result in analyte degradation, especially in warmer climates like Thailand. We evaluated the effects of time and temperature on immunoactive steroid hormone stability in Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) blood stored with and without an anti-coagulant before centrifugation. For each elephant (5 male, 5 female), whole blood was aliquoted (n = 2 ml each) into 13 red top (without anticoagulant) or purple top (with anticoagulant) tubes. One tube from each treatment was centrifuged immediately and the serum or plasma frozen at -20°C (Time 0, T0). The remaining 12 aliquots were divided into stored temperature groups: 4°C, room temperature (RT, ~22°C), and 37°C, and centrifuged after 6, 24, 48 and 62 h of storage. Serum and plasma concentrations of progestagens in females, testosterone in males and cortisol in both sexes were quantified by validated enzyme immunoassays. Steroid concentration differences from T0 were determined by a randomized complete block ANOVA and Dunnett's tests. The only evidence of hormone degradation was cortisol and testosterone concentrations in serum stored at 37°C. Testosterone concentrations declined by 34% at 48 h and 52% at 62 h, cortisol was decreased by 19% after 48 h and 27% after 62 h at 37°C, respectively. None of the other aliquots displayed significant changes over time at any temperature. In conclusion, steroids appear to be stable in blood for nearly 3 days at room or refrigeration temperatures before centrifugation; steroids in samples with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid were particularly stable. However, warmer temperatures may negatively affect steroids stored without anti-coagulant, perhaps due to red blood cell metabolism. Thus, under field conditions with no access to cold or freezer temperatures, collection of plasma is a better choice for elephants up to at least 62 h before centrifugation.

Use of anti-gonadotropin-releasing hormone vaccines in African elephants (Loxodonta africana): A review

Background: Androgen-related aggressive behaviour and musth cause serious problems in captive African elephant bulls and often lead to human and animal injuries, and damage to property.Objectives: To review the work carried out with anti-gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) vaccines to control androgen-related behaviour and fertility in captive and free-ranging elephant bulls and the induction of anoestrus in elephant cows.Method: In the first study, an anti-GnRH vaccine from Pepscan was tested in six bulls (four captive and two free-ranging). Once the vaccine Improvac® became available, the effect on behaviour, the reproductive organs and semen quality was tested. Improvac® was also used to attempt induction of anoestrus in elephant cows.Results: The first study proved that aggressive behaviours are significantly associated with increased faecal androgen concentrations. Musth (n = 1) and aggressive behaviour (n = 2) were down regulated and correlated with a decline in faecal androgen concentrations. Aggression and musth could be controlled with Improvac® (600 µg), but were more consistent when the dose was increased to 1000 µg administered every five to six months. The same dose down regulated testicular function and bulls (n = 17) were rendered infertile within 12 months after commencement of treatment. Initial attempts to induce anoestrous with 600 µg in free-ranging elephant cows gave inconclusive results, but 1000 µg in captive cows delivered five-monthly was successful.Conclusion: The treatment of elephant bulls with Improvac® resulted in the successful down-regulation of androgen-related behaviour and sperm production in captive and wild elephant bulls of various ages (≤ 34 years). Preliminary studies to induce anoestrus in cows with Improvac® appear to be successful.

Parasite-associated mortality in a long-lived mammal: Variation with host age, sex, and reproduction

Parasites can cause severe host morbidity and threaten survival. As parasites are generally aggregated within certain host demographics, they are likely to affect a small proportion of the entire population, with specific hosts being at particular risk. However, little is known as to whether increased host mortality from parasitic causes is experienced by specific host demographics. Outside of theoretical studies, there is a paucity of literature concerning dynamics of parasite-associated host mortality. Empirical evidence mainly focuses on short-lived hosts or model systems, with data lacking from long-lived wild or semi-wild vertebrate populations. We investigated parasite-associated mortality utilizing a multigenerational database of mortality, health, and reproductive data for over 4,000 semi-captive timber elephants (Elephas maximus), with known causes of death for mortality events. We determined variation in mortality according to a number of host traits that are commonly associated with variation in parasitism within mammals: age, sex, and reproductive investment in females. We found that potentially parasite-associated mortality varied significantly across elephant ages, with individuals at extremes of lifespan (young and old) at highest risk. Mortality probability was significantly higher for males across all ages. Female reproducers experienced a lower probability of potentially parasite-associated mortality than females who did not reproduce at any investigated time frame. Our results demonstrate increased potentially parasite-associated mortality within particular demographic groups. These groups (males, juveniles, elderly adults) have been identified in other studies as susceptible to parasitism, stressing the need for further work investigating links between infection and mortality. Furthermore, we show variation between reproductive and non-reproductive females, with mothers being less at risk of potentially parasite mortality than nonreproducers.

Effects of GnRH vaccination in wild and captive African Elephant bulls (Loxodonta africana) on reproductive organs and semen quality

OBJECTIVES

Although the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) is classified as endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), in some isolated habitats in southern Africa, contraception is of major interest due to local overpopulation. GnRH vaccination has been promoted as a non-invasive contraceptive measure for population management of overabundant wildlife. We tested the efficacy of this treatment for fertility control in elephant bulls.

METHODS

In total, 17 male African elephants that were treated with a GnRH vaccine were examined in two groups. In the prospective study group 1 (n = 11 bulls, ages: 8-36 years), semen quality, the testes, seminal vesicles, ampullae and prostate, which were all measured by means of transrectal ultrasound, and faecal androgen metabolite concentrations were monitored over a three-year period. Each bull in the prospective study received 5 ml of Improvac® (1000 μg GnRH conjugate) intramuscularly after the first examination, followed by a booster six weeks later and thereafter every 5-7 months. In a retrospective study group (group 2, n = 6, ages: 19-33 years), one examination was performed on bulls which had been treated with GnRH vaccine for 5-11 years.

RESULTS

In all bulls of group 1, testicular and accessory sex gland sizes decreased significantly after the third vaccination. In six males examined prior to vaccination and again after more than five vaccinations, the testis size was reduced by 57.5%. Mean testicular height and length decreased from 13.3 ± 2.6 cm x 15.2 ± 2.8 cm at the beginning to 7.6 ± 2.1 cm x 10.2 ± 1.8 cm at the end of the study. Post pubertal bulls (>9 years, n = 6) examined prior to vaccination produced ejaculates with viable spermatozoa (volume: 8-175 ml, sperm concentration: 410-4000x106/ml, total motility: 0-90%), while after 5-8 injections, only 50% of these bulls produced ejaculates with a small number of immotile spermatozoa. The ejaculates of group 2 bulls (vaccinated >8 times) were devoid of spermatozoa. Faecal androgen metabolite concentrations measured in captive males decreased significantly after the fourth vaccination. None of the males entered musth during the treatment period.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results showed a marked decrease in semen quality, testicle and secondary sex gland sizes following repeated GnRH vaccinations. After 2-4 years of continuous treatment every 5-7 months, the effects were similar to surgical castration.