The quick and the dead: A paradigm for studying friendly fire

The Role of State and Trait Self-Control on the Sustained Attention to Response Task

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to assess the plausibility of self-control depletion, or ego-depletion, as the underlying cognitive resource responsible for performance decrements on the sustained attention to response task.

BACKGROUND

Researchers suggested that self-control is a limited cognitive resource used to complete a myriad of processes, including sustained attention. Past research showed that trait self-control affects some sustained attention tasks. However, little research has investigated the effect of self-control as a limited cognitive resource that varies over time (i.e., as a state-dependent variable).

METHODS

This experiment investigated the effect of self-control (trait and state) on a sustained motor-inhibition task (e.g., sustained attention to response task; SART). State self-control was manipulated using a between-subjects design-participants in the experimental condition completed a task designed to deplete state self-control prior to performing the SART while the control condition completed a modified version that did not deplete self-control.

RESULTS

Trait self-control predicted performance on the SART, but the depletion task (state self-control) had no detectable effect.

CONCLUSION

Given the evidence, it is unlikely that state self-control plays a causal role in performance decrements in the SART, but there appears to be some association between performance on the SART and trait self-control.

APPLICATION

Trait self-control ought to be considered in future work for personnel selection in real-world tasks that the SART models such as long-distance driving, air traffic control, and TSA operations.

Perceptual decoupling in the sustained attention to response task is unlikely

Researchers dispute the cause of errors in high Go, low No Go target detection tasks, like the Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART). Some researchers propose errors in the SART are due to perceptual decoupling, where a participant is unaware of stimulus identity. This lack of external awareness causes an erroneous response. Other researchers suggest the majority of the errors in the SART are instead due to response leniency, not perceptual decoupling. Response delays may enable a participant who is initially unaware of stimulus identity, perceptually decoupled, to become aware of stimulus identity, or perceptually recoupled. If, however, the stimulus presentation time is shortened to the minimum necessary for stimulus recognition and the stimulus is disrupted with a structured mask, then there should be no time to enable perception to recouple even with a response delay. From the perceptual decoupling perspective, there should be no impact of a response delay on performance in this case. Alternatively if response bias is critical, then even in this case a response delay may impact performance. In this study, we shortened stimulus presentation time and added a structured mask. We examined whether a response delay impacted performance in the SART and tasks where the SART's response format was reversed. We expected a response delay would only impact signal detection theory bias, c, in the SART, where response leniency is an issue. In the reverse formatted SART, since bias was not expected to be lenient, we expected no impact or minimal impact of a response delay on response bias. These predictions were verified. Response bias is more critical in understanding SART performance, than perceptual decoupling, which is rare if it occurs at all in the SART.

Prolonging the Response Movement Reduces Commission Errors in a High-Go, Low-No-Go Target Detection Task and Composite Metrics of Performance Miss This Effect

OBJECTIVE

Expand research on the Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART) to a more applied agricultural target detection/selection task and examine the utility of various performance metrics, including composite measures of speed and accuracy, in a High-Go/Low-No-Go stimuli task.

BACKGROUND

Modified SARTs have been utilized to investigate mechanisms, such as failures of response inhibition, occurring in friendly fire and collateral damage incidents. Researchers have demonstrated that composite measures of speed and accuracy are useful for Low Go/High No-Go stimuli tasks, but this has not been demonstrated for High-Go/Low-No-Go tasks, such as the SART.

METHOD

Participants performed a modified SART, where they selected ("sprayed") images of weeds (Go stimuli) that appeared on a computer screen, while withholding to rarer soybean plant images (No-Go stimuli).

RESULTS

Response time was a function of distance from a central starting point. Participants committed commission errors (sprayed the soybeans) at a significantly higher rate when the stimuli appeared under the cursor centered on the screen for each trial. Participant's omission errors (failure to spray a weed) increased significantly as a function of distance. The composite measures examined were primarily influenced by response time and omission errors limiting their utility when commission errors are of particular interest.

CONCLUSION

Participants are far more accurate in their decision making when required to execute a longer duration motor task in High-Go/Low-No-Go experiments.

APPLICATION

Demonstrates a serious human factors liability of target detection and snap-to-target systems.

Perceptual decoupling or trigger happiness: the effect of response delays and shorter presentation times on a go-no-go task with a high go prevalence

In the current investigation, we modified the high Go, low No-Go Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART). Some researchers argue a commission error, an inappropriate response to a No-Go stimulus, in the SART is due to the participant being inattentive, or perceptually decoupled, during stimulus onset. Response delays in the SART reduce commission errors. A response delay may therefore enable a participant who is initially inattentive to recouple their attention in time to appropriately perceive the stimulus and withhold a response to a No-Go stimulus. However, shortening stimulus display duration in the SART should limit the possibility of the participant identifying the stimulus later, if they are initially not attending the stimulus. A response delay should not reduce commission errors if stimulus duration is kept to the minimum duration enabling stimulus recognition. In two experiments, we shortened stimulus onset to offset duration and added response delays of varying lengths. In both experiments, even when stimulus duration was shortened, response delays notably reduced commission errors if the delay was greater than 250 ms. In addition, using the Signal Detection Theory perspective in which errors of commission in the SART are due to a lenient response bias-trigger happiness, we predicted that response delays would result in a shift to a more conservative response bias in both experiments. These predictions were verified. The errors of commission in the SART may not be a measures of conscious awareness per se, but instead indicative of the level of participant trigger happiness-a lenient response bias.

Assessment of Vigilance and Fatigue

This article summarizes the definitions of vigilance, fatigue, and sleepiness, as well as tools used in their assessment. Consideration is given to the strengths and limitations of the different subjective and objective tools. Future directions for research are also discussed, as well as the public health importance of continued investigation in this subject.

Not according to plan: Cognitive failures in marksmanship due to effects of expertise, unknown environments, and the likelihood of shooting unintended targets

Shooting errors have multi-faceted causes with contributing factors that include sensorimotor activity and cognitive failures. Empirical investigations often assess mental errors through threat identification, yet other cognitive failures could contribute to poor outcomes. The current study explored several possible sources of cognitive failures unrelated to threat identification with live fire exercises. Experiment 1 examined a national shooting competition to compare marksmanship accuracy, expertise, and planning in the likelihood of hitting no-shoot or unintended targets. Experts demonstrated an inverse speed/accuracy trade-off and fired upon fewer no-shoot targets than lesser skilled shooters, yet overall, greater opportunity to plan produced more no-shoot errors, thereby demonstrating an increase in cognitive errors. Experiment 2 replicated and extended this finding under conditions accounting for target type, location, and number. These findings further dissociate the roles of marksmanship and cognition in shooting errors while suggesting that marksmanship evaluations should be re-designed to better incorporate cognitive variables.

A review of visual sustained attention: neural mechanisms and computational models

Sustained attention is one of the basic abilities of humans to maintain concentration on relevant information while ignoring irrelevant information over extended periods. The purpose of the review is to provide insight into how to integrate neural mechanisms of sustained attention with computational models to facilitate research and application. Although many studies have assessed attention, the evaluation of humans' sustained attention is not sufficiently comprehensive. Hence, this study provides a current review on both neural mechanisms and computational models of visual sustained attention. We first review models, measurements, and neural mechanisms of sustained attention and propose plausible neural pathways for visual sustained attention. Next, we analyze and compare the different computational models of sustained attention that the previous reviews have not systematically summarized. We then provide computational models for automatically detecting vigilance states and evaluation of sustained attention. Finally, we outline possible future trends in the research field of sustained attention.

Dual-task effects between tone counting and mathematical calculations

We examined the impact of performing a tone counting task of varying cognitive loads and mathematical calculations simultaneously, compared to performance on the same tasks done individually. Participants performed continuous mathematical calculations, performed a high and a low cognitive load tone counting task, and also performed the math and counting tasks simultaneously. Performing the two tasks together resulted in significant dual-task interference. We also compared these results to previous studies employing the tone counting tasks with physically demanding tasks (climbing, kayaking and running). The interference between tone counting and mathematical calculations was worse than the interference between tone counting and running and kayaking. For climbing, the difference in interference was more nuanced with evidence indicating climbing uniquely asserts task prioritization. These findings have implications for operations requiring dual or multi-tasking.

How speed impacts threat assessment in lethal force decisions

Despite the importance of being both fast and accurate in lethal force decisions, there is little empirical evidence to identify how speed impacts threat-related decisions and perception. Two experiments used speeded and unspeeded manipulations to determine how the speed imperative impacted threat assessments. Experiment 1 used drift diffusion modeling to quantify decision parameters, including rate of information processing, decision threshold, bias, and non-decisional processes. Speeded conditions reduced the information threshold needed to make decisions and shortened non-decisional processes, yet this manipulation had no impact on the rate of information processing or starting bias. Experiment 2 explored perceptual differences in threat assessment. Participants confidently made threat assessments despite only 30 ms exposure to stimuli with little impact on their subjective threat ratings based on exposure duration. Taken together, these results document the influence of speed on decision-making parameters of threat assessments while demonstrating little impact on threat perception.

The effects of real-time performance feedback and performance emphasis on the sustained attention to response task (SART)

The sustained attention to response task (SART) has been used for over 20 years to assess participants' response times and inability to withhold to No-Go stimuli (commission errors). While there is debate in the literature regarding what causes commissions errors in the SART, there is agreement the SART is subject to a speed-accuracy trade-off (SATO). Researchers have demonstrated that performance on the SART can be influenced by directive instructions to participants to prioritize either speed or accuracy during the task. In the present study, we investigated whether real-time performance feedback and whether feedback emphasis (emphasizing speed or accuracy) affected participants' response times and accuracy. We found performance feedback per se had no impact on performance, but performance emphasis did affect performance, apparently shifting the SATO. This finding provides further evidence that the commission errors in the SART are not indicative of sustained attention or vigilance as those terms are commonly used in the literature, but more likely assess response strategy and motor control (or lack of motor control). These findings have implications for the psychological assessment literature, as well as applied areas where SART findings have been utilized such as shoot/no-shoot decision making.

Developing scenarios that evoke shoot/don't-shoot errors

Multiple errors can occur in a use-of-force scenario, although some critical errors involve unintended casualties where the target should never have been fired upon. Training instructors utilize a variety of methods to ensure military and law enforcement personnel do not inflict unintended casualties. However, there is little empirical evidence about the best methods to design a shooting simulation that might evoke these errors, which is critical to ensure the validity of any assessment or training exercise. The current study analyzed performance across a variety of simulated shooting scenarios developed and applied for military training purposes. Several factors were assessed based upon either the scenario or human performance. Scenario type, number of shots fired, and the ratio of hostiles-to-non-hostiles were significant predictors for the likelihood of inflicting an unintended casualty. This collected evidence should help improve scenario design for future training simulations that will help avoid these critical shooting errors.

Testing failure-to-identify hunting incidents using an immersive simulation: Is it viable?

INTRODUCTION

Failure-to-identify hunting incidents occur when a hunter, believing they are shooting at an animal, shoots at another human. Anecdotal evidence from the hunting community suggests that heightened arousal or excitement ("buck fever"), liquid intake, food intake, sleepiness and personality factors may be contributory factors to such incidents. Hunters who have shot other people based on failures-to-identify also report observing their hunted quarry for a considerable time before discharging their firearm. Concerning the complexity of hunting, we sought to ascertain if simulation would prove an effective platform for future safety research into this phenomenon.

METHOD

We conducted a video-based simulation of a deer hunt during a hunting exhibition show. Participants (N = 60) took part in one of four conditions - two types of scenario (having a good versus bad hunt) and two types of video (clear opportunity to shoot a stag versus clear opportunity to shoot an animal that cannot be identified). We investigated hunting outcomes and physiological arousal during the simulation, as well as personality traits, and self-reports of food, liquid intake and sleepiness. We also measured estimated versus actual time elapsed.

RESULTS

Pupil dilation, consistent with psychophysiological arousal, occurred when the hunter spotted their first stag, whereas Electrodermal Activity reduced. In the 10 s before shooting, EDA increased substantially. Time also appeared to slow down based on the participants' estimations of duration.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings corroborate suggestions of physiological arousal in the immediate lead-up to shooting but fall short of direct evidence for "buck fever" contributing to target misidentification. The simulation appeared to provide enough immersion to facilitate future research.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

This helps to understand the psychophysiological and temporal considerations of a hunter as they decide to shoot based on the information available to them at the time.