Patient-reported changes in communication after computer-based script training for aphasia

The Relationship Between Executive Functioning and Narrative Language Abilities in Aphasia

PURPOSE

Although individuals with aphasia commonly exhibit challenges in executive functioning (EF) and spoken discourse, there is limited research exploring connections between these abilities within this specific population. Therefore, this study investigated the relationship between verbal and nonverbal EF and narrative productions in aphasia using a multilevel linguistic approach.

METHOD

Participants included 22 persons with aphasia (PWA) and 24 age- and education-matched, neurologically healthy controls (NHC). All participants completed assessments for EF and a story retelling task. Narrative samples were analyzed for microlinguistic (productivity, lexical and syntactic features, semantic content, word and sentence errors) and macrolinguistic (coherence, informational content, organization, and language use) characteristics. Correlational analyses were employed to explore the relationships among narrative variables. EF factors, extracted from principal component analysis, were used as predictive variables in hierarchical stepwise regression analyses to evaluate their role in predicting narrative performances of PWA and NHC.

RESULTS

Relative to NHC, PWA exhibited impaired narrative performance affecting both microlinguistic and macrolinguistic levels. Breakdowns at the structural level (i.e., reduced productivity, syntax, lexical retrieval, and diversity) correlated with impaired story completeness, organization, and connectedness; this relationship was more prominent for PWA. Three EF factors representing (1) verbal EF, (2) verbal and nonverbal fluency, and (3) nonverbal EF were extracted. Factors 1 and 2 largely predicted narrative performance, whereas Factor 3 (i.e., nonverbal EF) contributed prominently to predicting macrolinguistic discourse performance in both groups although accounting for less variance in the data. Overall, lower EF scores, particularly verbal EF variables, predicted poor narrative performance in both groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that both linguistic and extralinguistic cognitive abilities play a role in story retelling performances among PWA. Notably, both verbal and nonverbal EF skills were found to be correlated with narrative abilities. However, the extent of their contributions varied depending on the discourse levels assessed. These findings provide a significant contribution to our understanding of the cognitive factors associated with breakdowns in discourse among PWA and highlight the importance of comprehensive assessment of EF and discourse within this population.

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL

https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.26485627.

Behavioral, Functional Imaging, and Neurophysiological Outcomes of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation and Speech-Language Therapy in an Individual with Aphasia

Speech-language therapy (SLT) is the most effective technique to improve language performance in persons with aphasia. However, residual language impairments remain even after intensive SLT. Recent studies suggest that combining transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) with SLT may improve language performance in persons with aphasia. However, our understanding of how tDCS and SLT impact brain and behavioral relation in aphasia is poorly understood. We investigated the impact of tDCS and SLT on a behavioral measure of scripted conversation and on functional connectivity assessed with multiple methods, both resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) and resting-state electroencephalography (rs-EEG). An individual with aphasia received 15 sessions of 20-min cathodal tDCS to the right angular gyrus concurrent with 40 min of SLT. Performance during scripted conversation was measured three times at baseline, twice immediately post-treatment, and at 4- and 8-weeks post-treatment. rs-fMRI was measured pre-and post-3-weeks of treatment. rs-EEG was measured on treatment days 1, 5, 10, and 15. Results show that both communication performance and left hemisphere functional connectivity may improve after concurrent tDCS and SLT. Results are in line with aphasia models of language recovery that posit a beneficial role of left hemisphere perilesional areas in language recovery.

Collaborative co-design and evaluation of an immersive virtual reality application prototype for communication rehabilitation (DISCOVR prototype)

PURPOSE

Virtual reality (VR) lends itself to communication rehabilitation by creating safe, replicable, and authentic simulated environments in which users learn and practice communication skills. The aim of this research was to obtain the views of health professionals and technology specialists on the design characteristics and usability of a prototype VR application for communication rehabilitation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Nine professionals from different health and technology disciplines participated in an online focus group or individual online interview to evaluate the application and use of the VR prototype. Data sources were analysed using a content thematic analysis.

RESULTS

Four main themes relating to VR design and implementation in rehabilitation were identified: (i) designing rehabilitation-focused virtual worlds; (ii) understanding and using VR hardware; (iii) making room for VR in rehabilitation and training; and (iv) implementing VR will not replace the health professional's role.

DISCUSSION

Health professionals and technology specialists engaged in co-design while evaluating the VR prototype. They identified software features requiring careful consideration to ensure improved usability, client safety, and success in communication rehabilitation outcomes. Continuing inclusive co-design, engaging health professionals, clients with communication disability, and their families will be essential to creating useable VR applications and integrating these successfully into rehabilitation. Implications for rehabilitationHealth and technology professionals, along with clients, are integral to the co-design of new VR technology applications.Design of VR applications needs to consider the client's communication, physical, cognitive, sensory, psychosocial, and emotional needs for greater usability of these programs.Realism and authenticity of interactions, characters, and environments are considered important factors to allow users to be fully immersed in virtual simulations to enhance rehabilitation.

Timing of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) combined with speech and language therapy (SLT) for aphasia: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Studies suggest that language recovery in aphasia may be improved by pairing speech-language therapy with transcranial direct current stimulation. However, results from many studies have been inconclusive regarding the impact transcranial direct current stimulation may have on language recovery in individuals with aphasia. An important factor that may impact the efficacy of transcranial direct current stimulation is its timing relative to speech-language therapy. Namely, online transcranial direct current stimulation (paired with speech-language therapy) and offline transcranial direct current stimulation (prior to or following speech-language therapy) may have differential effects on language recovery in post-stroke aphasia. Transcranial direct current stimulation provided immediately before speech-language therapy may prime the language system whereas stimulation provided immediately after speech-language therapy may aid in memory consolidation. The main aim of this study is to investigate the differential effects of offline and online transcranial direct stimulation on language recovery (i.e., conversation) in post-stroke aphasia.

METHODS/DESIGN

The study is a randomized, parallel-assignment, double-blind treatment study. Participants will be randomized to one of four treatment conditions and will participate in 15 treatment sessions. All groups receive speech-language therapy in the form of computer-based script practice. Three groups will receive transcranial direct current stimulation: prior to speech-language therapy, concurrent with speech-language therapy, or following speech-language therapy. One group will receive sham stimulation (speech-language therapy only). We aim to include 12 participants per group (48 total). We will use fMRI-guided neuronavigation to determine placement of transcranial direct stimulation electrodes on participants' left angular gyrus. Participants will be assessed blindly at baseline, immediately post-treatment, and at 4 weeks and 8 weeks following treatment. The primary outcome measure is change in the rate and accuracy of the trained conversation script from baseline to post-treatment.

DISCUSSION

Results from this study will aid in determining the optimum timing to combine transcranial direct current stimulation with speech-language therapy to facilitate better language outcomes for individuals with aphasia. In addition, effect sizes derived from this study may also inform larger clinical trials investigating the impact of transcranial direct current stimulation on functional communication in individuals with aphasia.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03773406. December 12, 2018.

Get in Sync: Active Ingredients and Patient Profiles in Scripted-Sentence Learning in Spanish Speakers With Aphasia

PURPOSE

Script training is a well-established treatment for aphasia, but its evidence comes almost exclusively from monolingual English speakers with aphasia. Furthermore, its active ingredients and profiles of people with aphasia (PWA) that respond to this treatment remain understudied. This study aimed to adapt a scripted-sentence learning protocol to Colombian Spanish speakers with aphasia, investigate speech entrainment (i.e., unison production of sentences) as an active ingredient for scripted-sentence learning, and identify patient profiles associated with better scripted-sentence learning.

METHOD

Fourteen monolingual Spanish speakers with aphasia learned a set of 30 sentences. To examine speech entrainment as an active ingredient for scripted-sentence learning, we investigated whether sentences containing externally added rhythmic cues (involving stress-aligned vs. metronomic rhythmic cues) would result in better scripted-sentence learning compared with control sentences. Learning was measured via postsession probes and analyzed using mixed-effects logistic regression models. The relationship between scripted-sentence learning and baseline language and rhythmic processing measures was also examined.

RESULTS

Significant scripted-sentence learning over time indicated a successful adaptation of a script-training protocol to Spanish. PWA learned significantly more scripted sentences in the rhythmically enhanced conditions compared with the control condition. There were no differences between rhythmically enhanced conditions (stress-aligned vs. metronomic). In terms of patient profiles, it was found that PWA with more severe aphasia demonstrated larger learning gains, but rhythmic processing showed little association with learning estimates.

CONCLUSIONS

To our knowledge, this study provides the first adaptation of a scripted-sentence learning protocol for monolingual Spanish speakers with aphasia, demonstrating cross-linguistic benefits of script training interventions. Highlighting rhythmic features during speech entrainment facilitated scripted-sentence learning in Spanish speakers with aphasia, suggesting that speech entrainment may be an active ingredient for scripted-sentence learning. More severe aphasia was associated with better scripted-sentence learning, suggesting that more severely impaired individuals are likely to benefit most from this treatment.

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL

https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.19241847.

Complexity and feedback during script training in aphasia: A feasibility study

OBJECTIVE

To explore the impact of complexity and feedback on script training outcomes in aphasia DESIGN: Randomized balanced single-blind 2 × 2 factorial design SETTING: Freestanding urban rehabilitation hospital.

PARTICIPANTS

Adults with fluent and nonfluent aphasia (at least six months post-onset).

INTERVENTIONS

Experimental treatment was AphasiaScripts®, a computer-based script training program. Scripts were 10-turns long and developed at different complexity levels to allow for comparison of high versus low complexity. The program was modified to contrast high versus low feedback conditions during sentence practice. Participants were instructed to practice three 30-minute sessions per day, six days a week for three weeks.

MAIN MEASURES

Gains achieved from baseline in accuracy and rate of production of trained and untrained script sentences at post-treatment and at 3-, 6- and 12-weeks after the end of treatment.

RESULTS

Sixteen participants completed the intervention. On the trained script, gains were statistically significant for both accuracy and words per minute, at post-treatment and 3-, 6- and 12-week maintenance. Gains on the untrained script were smaller than on the trained script; they were statistically significant only for accuracy at post-treatment and 3-week maintenance. Complexity had an influence on accuracy at post-treatment (F(1) = 4.8391, p = 0.0501) and at maintenance (F(1) = 5.3391, p = 0.04125). Practicing scripts with high complexity increased accuracy by 11.33% at post-treatment and by 9.90% at maintenance compared to scripts with low complexity. Participants with nonfluent aphasia made greater gains than those with fluent aphasia. There was no significant effect of feedback.

CONCLUSION

This study reinforces script training as a treatment option for aphasia. Results highlight the use of more complex scripts to better promote acquisition and maintenance of script production skills. There is a need for further investigation of these variables with larger samples and with other types of aphasia treatments.

CLINICALTRIALS

gov identifier: NCT01597037.

Behavioral interventions for poststroke aphasia

There is a long history of behavioral interventions for poststroke aphasia with hundreds of studies supporting the benefits of aphasia treatment. However, interventions for aphasia are complex with many interacting components, and no one treatment is appropriate for all persons with aphasia. We present a novel, simple framework for classifying aphasia interventions. The framework is incorporated within the overarching International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) model and is consistent with the commonly-held definition that aphasia is a multimodality disorder that impairs, in varying degrees, the understanding and expression of both oral and written language modalities. Furthermore, within the language impairment level, it distinguishes between the linguistic areas of phonology, semantics, and syntax that may be impaired individually or in combination. We define the terminology of the proposed framework and then categorize some common examples of behavioral interventions for post-stroke aphasia. We describe some of these interventions in greater detail to illustrate the extensive toolbox of evidence-based treatments for aphasia. We address some key issues that clinicians, usually speech-language pathologists, consider when selecting interventions for their specific patients with aphasia, including dose. Finally, we address various models of service delivery for persons with aphasia such as Intensive Comprehensive Aphasia Programs (ICAPs) and Aphasia Centers.

Does Right-Hemispheric Anodal tDCS Enhance the Impact of Script Training in Chronic Aphasia? A Single-Subject Experimental Study

Background: Script training is an aphasia treatment approach that has been demonstrated to have a positive effect on communication of individuals with aphasia; however, it is time intensive as a therapeutic modality. To augment therapy-induced neuroplasticity, transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) may be implemented. tDCS has been paired with other speech-language treatments, however, has not been investigated with script training.

Aims: The purpose of this study was to determine if tDCS improves communication proficiency when paired with script training, compared to script training alone.

Methods and Procedures: A single-subject experimental design was implemented with a participant with non-fluent aphasia, using two scripts across treatment conditions: script training with sham-tDCS, and script training with anodal-tDCS. Treatment sessions were 75 min long, administered three times weekly. Anodal tDCS was implemented for 20 min with a current of 1.5 mA over the right inferior frontal gyrus.

Results: Large effect sizes were obtained on script mastery for both stimulation conditions (anodal d₂ = 9.94; sham d₂ = 11.93). tDCS did not improve script accuracy, however, there was a significant improvement in the rate of change of script pace relative to baseline (3.99 seconds/day, p < 0.001) in the anodal tDCS condition.

Conclusion: Despite a null tDCS result on accuracy, the script training protocol increased script performance to a near-fluent level of communication. There is preliminary evidence to suggest that tDCS may alter the rate of script acquisition, however, further research to corroborate this finding is required. Implications for future studies are discussed.

Applying the Rehabilitation Treatment Specification System (RTSS) to Functional Communication Treatment Approaches for Aphasia

There are many different approaches to the rehabilitation of aphasia, a communication disorder that affects a person's understanding and expression of spoken and written language. One approach called "functional communication interventions" aims to enhance communication success as opposed to solely improve linguistic abilities. This approach encompasses many skills (e.g., gesturing) and factors (e.g., access to communication supports) that support sending and receiving messages in "real world" daily activities and environments. Functional communication treatments are highly diverse and not always well described. A framework that may provide structure to the description of functional communication interventions for aphasia is the Rehabilitation Treatment Specification System (RTSS). The RTSS was developed by an interdisciplinary research team to describe interventions across any rehabilitation discipline and in any setting or format. The RTSS uses a common language and a systematic approach to describing treatment and includes three connected elements - a single target, one or more ingredients, and a mechanism of action - that, taken together, attempt to explain how and why a treatment works. While the RTTS has been described previously within the field of speech-language pathology, it has not yet been applied to the field of aphasiology. We applied the RTSS framework to a sample of peer-reviewed studies that represent functional communication treatments, including Promoting Aphasics' Communicative Effectiveness (PACE), Modified Response Elaboration Training (M-RET), Script Training, Conversation Treatment, and Communication Partner Training. We discuss both the advantages and disadvantages of using the RTSS framework to better understand the important elements of functional communication treatment approaches for aphasia.

Extended fMRI-Guided Anodal and Cathodal Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Targeting Perilesional Areas in Post-Stroke Aphasia: A Pilot Randomized Clinical Trial

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) may enhance speech and language treatment (SLT) for stroke survivors with aphasia; however, to date, there is no standard protocol for the application of tDCS in post-stroke aphasia. We explored the safety and efficacy of fMRI-guided tDCS on functional language and cortical activity when delivered to the lesioned left hemisphere concurrently with SLT across an extended, six-week treatment period. Twelve persons with chronic, nonfluent aphasia following a single left-hemisphere stroke participated in the three-arm (anodal vs. cathodal vs. sham) single-blind, parallel, pilot trial. No serious adverse events occurred during 30 treatment sessions or in the following six weeks. All groups demonstrated functional language gains following intensive treatment; however, active tDCS resulted in greater gains in standardized, probe, and caregiver-reported measures of functional language than sham. Evidence declaring one polarity as superior for inducing language recovery was mixed. However, cathodal stimulation to the lesioned left hemisphere, expected to have a down-regulating effect, resulted in increased areas of cortical activation across both hemispheres, and specifically perilesionally. Generalization of these preliminary findings is limited; however, results are nevertheless compelling that tDCS combined with SLT can be safely applied across extended durations, with the potential to enhance functional language and cortical activation for persons with aphasia.

Treatment Fidelity Procedures for an Aphasia Intervention Within a Randomized Controlled Trial: Design, Feasibility, and Results

Purpose This study reports on the treatment fidelity procedures implemented during a 5-year randomized controlled trial comparing intensive and distributed comprehensive aphasia therapy. Specifically, the results of 1 treatment, verb network strengthening treatment (VNeST), are examined. Method Eight participants were recruited for each of 7 consecutive cohorts for a total of 56 participants. Participants completed 60 hr of aphasia therapy, including 15 hr of VNeST. Two experienced speech-language pathologists delivered the treatment. To promote treatment fidelity, the study team developed a detailed manual of procedures and fidelity checklists, completed role plays to standardize treatment administration, and video-recorded all treatment sessions for review. To assess protocol adherence during treatment delivery, trained research assistants not involved in the treatment reviewed video recordings of a subset of randomly selected VNeST treatment sessions and completed the fidelity checklists. This process was completed for 32 participants representing 2 early cohorts and 2 later cohorts, which allowed for measurement of protocol adherence over time. Percent accuracy of protocol adherence was calculated across clinicians, cohorts, and study condition (intensive vs. distributed therapy). Results The fidelity procedures were sufficient to promote and verify a high level of adherence to the treatment protocol across clinicians, cohorts, and study condition. Conclusion Treatment fidelity strategies and monitoring are feasible when incorporated into the study design. Treatment fidelity monitoring should be completed at regular intervals during the course of a study to ensure that high levels of protocol adherence are maintained over time and across conditions.

Optimising recovery in aphasia: Learning following exposure to a single dose of computer-based script training

Purpose: Intensity of therapy influences outcomes in aphasia treatment, but little is known about optimum dosage across treatment approaches. Improved understanding of the effects of dose could help facilitate clinical decisions that maximise patient outcomes. This study examines learning in individuals with aphasia following exposure to one 60-min dose of computer-delivered script training, with or without a rest break. Method: Twenty participants (6F, 14M; 17 nonfluent, 3 fluent) with chronic aphasia due to left-hemisphere stroke participated. Participants had a mean (SD) age of 56.9 (8.4) years, a mean time post onset of 55.1 (range: 6.4-396.4) months, and a mean (SD) Comprehensive Aphasia Test score of 47.8 (4.0). Participants were exposed to 60 min of training, with or without a rest break, of a three-turn conversational script about either weather or traffic. Treatment was delivered via computer using a virtual clinician that visually modelled speech and guided treatment, promoting treatment fidelity. Oral reading probes for script sentences were administered at baseline (3 times), mid-treatment, immediately post-treatment, and, at various times, up to 2 weeks post-treatment to track script acquisition and maintenance. The study also examined generalisation from a trained script to a conversation with a clinician via a generalisation probe at three time points: baseline, immediately post-treatment, and 2 weeks post-treatment. Result: Following exposure to one dose of script training, participants demonstrated statistically significant improvements in oral reading accuracy and rate of script production on trained probes from baseline to immediately post-treatment and 2 weeks post-treatment. Participants also demonstrated significant change from baseline in generalisation to a conversation with a clinician immediately post-treatment and at 2 weeks post-treatment. Conclusion: Exposure to a single dose of computer-delivered script training may facilitate learning. These results have implications for future research investigating optimal dosage and scheduling parameters.

Video-Implemented Script Training in a Bilingual Spanish-English Speaker With Aphasia

Purpose This study examines the utility of Video-Implemented Script Training for Aphasia (VISTA) for improving speech production and fluency in a Spanish-English bilingual speaker with aphasia. Method In this single-subject, multiple-baseline intervention study, VISTA was utilized to facilitate fluent and intelligible speech through training with an audiovisual speech model. Scripts were developed from personalized topics of interest, and training stimuli were tailored for speech rate and linguistic complexity. One trained script per language contained a high proportion of cognates in order to examine the potential for enhancing cross-linguistic transfer. Primary and secondary outcome measures for trained and untrained scripts were percent correct and intelligible scripted words, grammatical errors, speech rate, and total percent intelligibility. Results R. C. showed significant improvement in accuracy, intelligibility, and grammaticality of trained scripts. Results revealed cross-linguistic transfer for both languages of treatment. A significantly greater magnitude of cross-language transfer was observed for scripts that were not cognate dense. Conclusions VISTA is a viable treatment method for bilingual individuals with aphasia. Cross-linguistic transfer was diminished when incorporating scripts with a high proportion of cognates; however, this may not be true for all bilingual individuals with aphasia and should be explored with additional participants.

Comparison of Therapy Practice at Home and in the Clinic: A Retrospective Analysis of the Constant Therapy Platform Data Set

Background: Computer-based therapies can provide an affordable and practical alternative by providing frequent intervention for stroke survivors with chronic aphasia by allowing the opportunity for home exercise practice, however more evidence is needed. The goal of this retrospective analysis was to compare the time course of therapy engagement when therapy was targeted in the clinic or at home by post-stroke individuals. We examined if home users of the therapy were compliant in therapy and if this documented practice time was associated with improved outcomes similar to clinic patients who practiced under the guidance of a clinician. Methods: A retrospective analysis of anonymously aggregated data collected for 3,686 patients with post-stroke aphasia over the course of four years (2013-2017) was conducted. Participants either received therapy delivered through Constant Therapy only at home (N = 2,100) or only in the clinic (N = 1,577). Constant Therapy includes over 70 evidence-based therapies for language and cognitive skills. This program was individualized for each patient with targeted tasks that dynamically adapted to each individual's progress. Results: Patients with <60% accuracy were analyzed to determine how long it took them to reach >90% accuracy. Results showed that both home-therapy and clinic patients reached 90% accuracy on their tasks similarly (Median = 3 sessions), but the frequency of therapy was significantly different with 50% of home users receiving therapy at least every 2 days while 50% of clinic patients only had therapy once every 5 days (p < 0.001). Thus, home-therapy users were able to master tasks in a shorter time (median of 6 days) than clinic patients (median of 12 days) (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Outcomes of treatment are similar for home users and clinic patients indicating the potential usability of a home-based treatment program for rehabilitation for post-stroke aphasia.

Exploring Treatment Fidelity in Persons With Aphasia Autonomously Practicing With Computerized Therapy Materials

PURPOSE

Current computer technologies permit independent practice for people with cognitive-communicative disorders. Previous research has investigated compliance rates and outcome changes but not treatment fidelity per se during practice. Our aim was to examine adherence to procedures (treatment fidelity) and accuracy while persons with aphasia independently practiced word production using interactive, multimodal, user-controlled, word-level icons on computers.

METHOD

Four persons with aphasia independently practiced single-word production after stimulation via user-initiated interactions in 3 conditions: (I) auditory stimulus with static representational drawing; (II) auditory stimulus with synchronized articulation video; and (III) users' choice between the 2 prior conditions. Sessions were video-recorded for subsequent analysis, which established emergently refined behavioral taxonomies using an iterative, mixed-methods approach.

RESULTS

In independent practice, users only sometimes adhere to modeled behaviors, other times improvising novel behaviors. The latter sometimes co-occurred with successful productions. Differences in success rates were noted between Conditions I and II across behaviors with Condition II generally favored. In Condition III, participants tended to choose the stimulus that resulted in highest success rates.

CONCLUSIONS

During independent practice with technology, persons with aphasia do not necessarily comply with clinicians' practice instructions, and treatment fidelity does not determine success. Autonomy and choice in practice may reveal unanticipated dimensions for computerized aphasia treatment.

Technology-Based Rehabilitation to Improve Communication after Acquired Brain Injury

The utilization of technology has allowed for several advances in aphasia rehabilitation for individuals with acquired brain injury. Thirty-one previous studies that provide technology-based language or language and cognitive rehabilitation are examined in terms of the domains addressed, the types of treatments that were provided, details about the methods and the results, including which types of outcomes are reported. From this, we address questions about how different aspects of the delivery of treatment can influence rehabilitation outcomes, such as whether the treatment was standardized or tailored, whether the participants were prescribed homework or not, and whether intensity was varied. Results differed by these aspects of treatment delivery but ultimately the studies demonstrated consistent improvement on various outcome measures. With these aspects of technology-based treatment in mind, the ultimate goal of personalized rehabilitation is discussed.

Script Templates: A Practical Approach to Script Training in Aphasia

PURPOSE

Script training for aphasia involves repeated practice of relevant phrases and sentences that, when mastered, can potentially be used in other communicative situations. Although an increasingly popular approach, script development can be time-consuming. We provide a detailed summary of the evidence supporting this approach. We then describe a method in which scripts at various levels of difficulty are created by systematically manipulating readability and grammatical and semantic components. We assess the appropriateness of using these template-based scripts with persons with aphasia of differing severities.

METHOD

We evaluated the oral reading performance of eight individuals with chronic non-fluent aphasia on scripts developed from the templates. Scripts were either of high or low difficulty relative to their aphasia severity, and personalized by inserting the participant's town and the name of an acquaintance. Oral reading probes were taken on three separate days within a week and performance within and across participants was examined.

RESULTS

Regardless of the participant's aphasia severity, scripts in the low-difficulty condition were read with significantly greater accuracy than scripts in the high-difficulty condition.

DISCUSSION

These findings support the use of graded script templates to ensure that appropriately challenging scripts are delivered to persons with aphasia for both clinical practice and research.

Improved language in chronic aphasia after self-delivered iPad speech therapy

Self-delivered speech therapy provides an opportunity for individualised dosage as a complement to the speech-therapy regime in the long-term rehabilitation pathway. Few apps for speech therapy have been subject to clinical trials, especially on a self-delivered platform. In a crossover design study, the Comprehensive Aphasia Test (CAT) and Cookie Theft Picture Description (CTPD) were used to measure untrained improvement in a group of chronic expressive aphasic patients after using a speech therapy app. A pilot study (n = 3) and crossover design (n = 7) comparing the therapy app with a non-language mind-game were conducted. Patients self-selected their training on the app, with a recommended use of 20 minutes per day. There was significant post-therapy improvement on the CAT and CTPD but no significant improvement after the mind-game intervention, suggesting there were language-specific effects following use of the therapy app. Improvements on the CTPD, a functional measurement of speech, suggest that a therapy app can produce practical, important changes in speech. The improvements post-therapy were not due to type of language category trained or amount of training on the app, but an inverse relationship with severity at baseline and post-therapy improvement was shown. This study suggests that self-delivered therapy via an app is beneficial for chronic expressive aphasia.

Impact of Personal Relevance on Acquisition and Generalization of Script Training for Aphasia: A Preliminary Analysis

PURPOSE

The importance of personalization in script training in aphasia has been assumed but never tested. This study compared acquisition and generalization of personally relevant versus generic words or phrases appearing in the same scripts.

METHOD

Eight individuals (6 men; 2 women) with chronic aphasia received 3 weeks of intensive computer-based script training. For each participant, 2 scripts, a trained and an untrained generalization script, were embedded with 4 personally relevant word choices and 2-4 generic items that were similar across participants. Scripts were probed for accuracy at baseline and posttreatment. Significance testing was conducted on baseline and posttreatment scores, and for gains in personally relevant versus generic items. Effect sizes were computed.

RESULTS

Both personally relevant and generic items improved significantly on trained scripts. Improvements on untrained scripts were smaller, with only personally relevant items reaching significance. There was no significant difference on gains made on personalized versus generic items for trained scripts (p = .059), but the effect size was large (d = 0.90). For generalization scripts, this effect was small (d = 0.25) and nonsignificant.

CONCLUSIONS

Personally relevant words and phrases were acquired, although not generalized, more successfully than generic words and phrases. Data supports the importance of personalization in script training, but the degree of that importance requires further investigation.

Using Virtual Technology to Promote Functional Communication in Aphasia: Preliminary Evidence From Interactive Dialogues With Human and Virtual Clinicians

PURPOSE

We investigated the feasibility of using a virtual clinician (VC) to promote functional communication abilities of persons with aphasia (PWAs). We aimed to determine whether the quantity and quality of verbal output in dialogues with a VC would be the same or greater than those with a human clinician (HC).

METHOD

Four PWAs practiced dialogues for 2 sessions each with a HC and VC. Dialogues from before and after practice were transcribed and analyzed for content. We compared measures taken before and after practice in the VC and HC conditions.

RESULTS

Results were mixed. Participants either produced more verbal output with the VC or showed no difference on this measure between the VC and HC conditions. Participants also showed some improvement in postpractice narratives.

CONCLUSION

Results provide support for the feasibility and applicability of virtual technology to real-life communication contexts to improve functional communication in PWAs.

Stroke Rehabilitation Using Virtual Environments

This review covers the rationale, mechanisms, and availability of commercially available virtual environment-based interventions for stroke rehabilitation. It describes interventions for motor, speech, cognitive, and sensory dysfunction. Also discussed are the important features and mechanisms that allow virtual environments to facilitate motor relearning. A common challenge is the inability to translate success in small trials to efficacy in larger populations. The heterogeneity of stroke pathophysiology has been blamed, and experts advocate for the study of multimodal approaches. Therefore, this article also introduces a framework to help define new therapy combinations that may be necessary to address stroke heterogeneity.

Efficient Vocational Skills Training for People with Cognitive Disabilities: An Exploratory Study Comparing Computer-Assisted Instruction to One-on-One Tutoring

BACKGROUND

This study compared the effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction to that of one-on-one tutoring for teaching people with mild and moderate cognitive disabilities when both training methods are designed to take account of the specific mental deficits most commonly found in cognitive disability populations.

METHOD

Fifteen participants (age 22-71) received either computer-assisted instruction or one-on-one tutoring in three content domains that were of functional and daily relevance to them: behavioural limits, rights and responsibilities (two modules) and alphabetical sorting. Learning was assessed by means of a series of pretests and four learning cycle post-tests. Both instructional conditions maintained time-on-task and teaching material equivalence, and both incorporated a set of best-practices and empirically supported teaching techniques designed to address attentional deficits, stimulus processing inefficiencies and cognitive load limitations.

RESULTS

Strong evidence of learning was found in both instructional method conditions. Moreover, in all content domains the two methods yielded approximately equivalent rates of learning and learning attainment.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings offer tentative evidence that a repetitive, computer-assisted training program can produce learning outcomes in people with mild and moderate cognitive disabilities that are comparable to those achieved by high-quality one-on-one tutoring.

Acquisition and maintenance of scripts in aphasia: a comparison of two cuing conditions

PURPOSE

This study was designed to compare acquisition and maintenance of scripts under two conditions: high cue, which provided numerous multimodality cues designed to minimize errors, and low cue, which provided minimal cues.

METHOD

In a randomized controlled crossover study, eight individuals with chronic aphasia received intensive computer-based script training under two cuing conditions. Each condition lasted 3 weeks, with a 3-week washout period. Trained and untrained scripts were probed for accuracy and rate at baseline, during treatment, immediately posttreatment, and at 3 and 6 weeks posttreatment. Significance testing was conducted on gain scores, and effect sizes were calculated.

RESULTS

Training resulted in significant gains in script acquisition with maintenance of skills at 3 and 6 weeks posttreatment. Differences between cuing conditions were not significant. When severity of aphasia was considered, there also were no significant differences between conditions, although magnitude of change was greater in the high-cue condition versus the low-cue condition for those with more severe aphasia.

CONCLUSIONS

Both cuing conditions were effective in acquisition and maintenance of scripts. The high-cue condition may be advantageous for those with more severe aphasia. Findings support the clinical use of script training and the importance of considering aphasia severity.

Rehabilitation of discourse impairments after acquired brain injury

Language impairments in patients with acquired brain injury can have a negative impact on social life as well as on other cognitive domains. Discourse impairments are among the most commonly reported communication deficits among patients with acquired brain damage. Despite advances in the development of diagnostic tools for detecting such impairments, few studies have investigated interventions to rehabilitate patients presenting with these conditions.

A Virtual Therapist for Speech and Language Therapy

A virtual therapist (VT) capable of modeling visible speech and directing speech and language therapy is presented. Three perspectives of practical and clinical use are described. The first is a description of treatment and typical roles that the VT performs in directing participation, practice and performance. The second is a description of techniques for modeling visible speech and implementing tele-rehabilitation. The third is an analysis of performance of a system (AphasiaRx™) for delivering speech and language therapy to people with aphasia, with results presented from a randomized controlled cross-over study in which the VT provided two levels of cuing. Compared to low cue treatment, high cue treatment resulted in 2.3 times faster learning. The paper concludes with a discussion of the benefits of speech and language therapy delivered by the VT.

Epidural cortical stimulation and aphasia therapy

BACKGROUND

There are several methods of delivering cortical brain stimulation to modulate cortical excitability and interest in their application as an adjuvant strategy in aphasia rehabilitation after stroke is growing. Epidural cortical stimulation, although more invasive than other methods, permits high frequency stimulation of high spatial specificity to targeted neuronal populations.

AIMS

First, we review evidence supporting the use of epidural cortical stimulation for upper limb recovery after focal cortical injury in both animal models and human stroke survivors. These data provide the empirical and theoretical platform underlying the use of epidural cortical stimulation in aphasia. Second, we summarize evidence for the application of epidural cortical stimulation in aphasia. We describe the procedures and primary outcomes of a safety and feasibility study (Cherney, Erickson & Small, 2010), and provide previously unpublished data regarding secondary behavioral outcomes from that study.

MAIN CONTRIBUTION

In a controlled study comparing epidural cortical stimulation plus language treatment (CS/LT) to language treatment alone (LT), eight stroke survivors with nonfluent aphasia received intensive language therapy for 6 weeks. Four of these participants also underwent surgical implantation of an epidural stimulation device which was activated only during therapy sessions. Behavioral data were collected before treatment, immediately after treatment, and at 6 and 12 weeks following the end of treatment. The effect size for the primary outcome measure, the Western Aphasia Battery Aphasia Quotient, was benchmarked as moderate from baseline to immediately post-treatment, and large from baseline to the 12-week follow-up. Similarly, effect sizes obtained at the 12-week follow-up for the Boston Naming Test, the Communicative Effectiveness Index, and for correct information units on a picture description task were greater than those obtained immediately post treatment. When effect sizes were compared for individual subject pairs on discourse measures of content and rate, effects were typically larger for the investigational subjects receiving CS/LT than for the control subjects receiving LT alone. These analyses support previous findings regarding therapeutic efficacy of CS/LT compared to LT i.e. epidural stimulation of ipsilesional premotor cortex may augment behavioral speech-language therapy, with the largest effects after completion of therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

Continued investigation of epidural cortical stimulation in combination with language training in post-stroke aphasia should proceed cautiously. Carefully planned studies that customize procedures to individual profiles are warranted. Information from research on non-invasive methods of CS/LT may also inform future studies of epidural cortical stimulation.

Script training and generalization for people with aphasia

PURPOSE

To examine the effects and generalization of a modified script training intervention, delivered partly via videoconferencing, on dialogue scripts that were produced by 2 individuals with aphasia.

METHOD

Each participant was trained on 2 personally relevant scripts. Intervention sessions occurred 3 times per week, with a combination of in-person meetings and videoconferencing, and lasted for 3 weeks per script. This study followed a multiple baseline design across scripts. Measures of accuracy, grammatical productivity, speaking rate, and articulatory fluency were obtained during baseline, intervention, and maintenance phases. Generalization probes were administered by challenging participants to engage in a conversation about their script topic with conversation partners who did not follow the script.

RESULTS

Both participants showed improvement on all dependent variables for both scripts during and after the intervention phase. Generalization samples showed improved grammatical morpheme use and increased rate of speech over prebaseline samples.

CONCLUSION

There is evidence that script training intervention can improve accuracy, grammatical productivity, speaking rate, and articulatory fluency in script production tasks as well as in more functional conversational tasks. Videoconferencing is a viable method of conducting script training intervention when it is supported by face-to-face intervention sessions, slight modifications to the procedure, and an emphasis on self-cuing skills.

Telerehabilitation, virtual therapists, and acquired neurologic speech and language disorders

Telerehabilitation (telerehab) offers cost-effective services that potentially can improve access to care for those with acquired neurologic communication disorders. However, regulatory issues including licensure, reimbursement, and threats to privacy and confidentiality hinder the routine implementation of telerehab services into the clinical setting. Despite these barriers, rapid technological advances and a growing body of research regarding the use of telerehab applications support its use. This article reviews the evidence related to acquired neurologic speech and language disorders in adults, focusing on studies that have been published since 2000. Research studies have used telerehab systems to assess and treat disorders including dysarthria, apraxia of speech, aphasia, and mild Alzheimer disease. They show that telerehab is a valid and reliable vehicle for delivering speech and language services. The studies represent a progression of technological advances in computing, Internet, and mobile technologies. They range on a continuum from working synchronously (in real-time) with a speech-language pathologist to working asynchronously (offline) with a stand-in virtual therapist. One such system that uses a virtual therapist for the treatment of aphasia, the Web-ORLA™ (Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago, Chicago, IL) system, is described in detail. Future directions for the advancement of telerehab for clinical practice are discussed.

LSVT LOUD and LSVT BIG: Behavioral Treatment Programs for Speech and Body Movement in Parkinson Disease

Recent advances in neuroscience have suggested that exercise-based behavioral treatments may improve function and possibly slow progression of motor symptoms in individuals with Parkinson disease (PD). The LSVT (Lee Silverman Voice Treatment) Programs for individuals with PD have been developed and researched over the past 20 years beginning with a focus on the speech motor system (LSVT LOUD) and more recently have been extended to address limb motor systems (LSVT BIG). The unique aspects of the LSVT Programs include the combination of (a) an exclusive target on increasing amplitude (loudness in the speech motor system; bigger movements in the limb motor system), (b) a focus on sensory recalibration to help patients recognize that movements with increased amplitude are within normal limits, even if they feel "too loud" or "too big," and (c) training self-cueing and attention to action to facilitate long-term maintenance of treatment outcomes. In addition, the intensive mode of delivery is consistent with principles that drive activity-dependent neuroplasticity and motor learning. The purpose of this paper is to provide an integrative discussion of the LSVT Programs including the rationale for their fundamentals, a summary of efficacy data, and a discussion of limitations and future directions for research.

Telepractice in Speech-Language Pathology: The Evidence, the Challenges, and the Future

This article provides a review of the evidence base for telepractice in speech-language pathology, the challenges that exist, and the future directions for this field. It describes the benefits of telepractice for clients and their families and outlines the evidence currently available to support the validity and reliability of this mode of delivery in the management of adult neurogenic communication disorders (aphasia, dysarthria, apraxia of speech); voice disorders; stuttering; dysphagia; laryngectomy; and articulation, language, and literacy disorders in children. The challenges facing telepractice in speech-language pathology and the future directions for this field are discussed.

Telepractice is an emerging area of service delivery in speech-language pathology that is likely to become an integral part of mainstream practice in the future. In order to achieve this, it is imperative that the profession accelerates its program of research and clinical endeavor in this area.

Supervised home training of dialogue skills in chronic aphasia: a randomized parallel group study

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to prove the efficacy of supervised self-training for individuals with aphasia. Linguistic and communicative performance in structured dialogues represented the main study parameters.

METHOD

In a cross-over design for randomized matched pairs, 18 individuals with chronic aphasia were examined during 12 weeks of supervised home training. Intensive language training, assisted by an electronic learning device (B.A.Bar), was compared with nonlinguistic training. Language performance, communicative abilities, and cognitive abilities were controlled before and after each intervention and at follow-up. The language training was designed to facilitate dialogue skills as required in everyday life.

RESULTS

Robust and specific improvements in the participants' linguistic and communicative abilities were obtained using B.A.Bar dialogue training but not with nonlinguistic training. The transfer to general linguistic and communicative performance remained limited when the whole group was considered. For 30%-50% of the participants, individual analysis revealed significant improvements in spontaneous language and general communicative skills. Furthermore, individual participants demonstrated significant improvements regarding standardized aphasia assessment and proxy rating of communicative effectiveness.

CONCLUSION

Supervised home training works. This study has proven that it is an effective tool for bolstering linguistic and communicative skills of individuals with aphasia.

Computer-based script training for aphasia: emerging themes from post-treatment interviews

This study presents results of post-treatment interviews following computer-based script training for persons with chronic aphasia. Each of the 23 participants received 9 weeks of AphasiaScripts training. Post-treatment interviews were conducted with the person with aphasia and/or a significant other person. The 23 interviews yielded 584 coded comments that were categorized into ten themes. Five of the themes related to the communication behaviors of the participant, whereas the other five related to the computer program and study procedures. Examples of each theme are presented. The themes provide qualitative evidence of change and generalization, supporting the use of this computer-based script training program.

Aphasia rehabilitation and the role of computer technology: can we keep up with modern times?

Numerous computer applications have been developed specifically for aphasia rehabilitation. In this paper, the role of these computer programs is discussed in relation to three complementary treatment approaches in aphasia rehabilitation: disorder-oriented treatment, functional treatment, and participation-oriented treatment. Most of the programs available focus on disorder-oriented treatment and several studies have reported a beneficial effect on language skills. Nowadays, in the context of disorder-oriented treatment, these applications are indispensible to achieve an adequate treatment frequency of at least 2 hours per week. Computer applications aiming at functional and social participation goals are less well-developed. Several studies show that high-technology AAC can be used to support off-line communication. Moreover, it is reported that the AAC training has a positive effect on overall communicative functioning. In the near future, computer applications for interactive communicative training may become an important tool in aphasia rehabilitation. Theoretically, the internet offers excellent opportunities to improve social participation for people with aphasia, but reading and writing problems limit their access to the internet. So far, only a few initiatives have been reported to support and increase their access.

Sentactics®: Computer-Automated Treatment of Underlying Forms

BACKGROUND: Treatment of Underlying Forms (TUF) is a linguistically-based treatment for improving agrammatic sentence deficits, which enjoys a substantial database attesting to its efficacy for improving both sentence comprehension and production in agrammatic aphasia. However, TUF requires considerable linguistic background to administer and administration time can exceed the number of treatment sessions allotted in toto for reimbursement by third party payors in the United States. Thus, Sentactics®, an interactive computer system that enables delivery of TUF by a virtual clinician was developed. AIMS: This study tested the effects of Sentactics® on the acquisition and generalized production and comprehension of complex sentences. Additionally, a direct comparison of the results of computer-delivered Sentactics® and clinician-delivered TUF was undertaken. METHODS #ENTITYSTARTX00026; PROCEDURES: Twelve agrammatic aphasic speakers participated in the study, with six receiving Sentactics® and six serving as experimental controls, who received no treatment. All participants were administered pre- and post-treatment sentence comprehension and production tests and other measures to evaluate the effects of Sentactics®. Performance of the Sentactics® group also was compared to eight agrammatic patients who previously received clinician-delivered TUF treatment, identical to that delivered via Sentactics®, but with a human clinician. OUTCOMES #ENTITYSTARTX00026; RESULTS: Sentactics® significantly improved all six aphasic speakers' ability to comprehend and produce both trained and untrained, linguistically related, complex sentences as compared to six agrammatic control participants who did not receive Sentactics®. In addition, comparing the results of the Sentactics® to clinician-delivered TUF revealed no significant differences between approaches with regard to acquisition or generalization patterns. CONCLUSIONS: These data provide further support for the efficacy of TUF and demonstrate the viability of computer-delivered therapies in the field of aphasia treatment.

Tell me your story: analysis of script topics selected by persons with aphasia

PURPOSE

This study examined the content of 100 short scripts, co-constructed by persons with aphasia (PWA) and a clinician. The PWA subsequently learned the scripts by interacting with a computerized virtual therapist. The goal was to provide clinicians with ideas regarding content for treatment that is meaningful to PWAs.

METHOD

Thirty-three PWAs generated the scripts, typically including 1 monologue and 2 dialogues in which the PWA was either the initiator or the responder. Scripts were analyzed for common topics and themes.

RESULTS

Thirty topics were identified and categorized into 10 themes. For the monologues, the largest category was personal stories (68%), with 12 of the 19 addressing their stroke and aphasia. For the dialogues, conversations with family were dominant (21%), followed by seeking or providing information (18%), and discussion of outside interests (14%).

CONCLUSION

PWAs choose to speak about their life experiences, choose to reconnect with their families, and tend to focus on communication that can help them to negotiate mundane normal life. Independent of how this content is used in treatment, materials should emphasize matters of high personal relevance to those treated.

Rehabilitation after stroke: current state of the science

Stroke rehabilitation is evolving into a clinical field based on the neuroscience of recovery and restoration. There has been substantial growth in the number and quality of clinical trials performed. Much effort now is directed toward motor restoration and is being led by trials of constraint-induced movement therapy. Although the results do not necessarily support that constraint-induced movement therapy is superior to other training methods, this treatment has become an important vehicle for developing clinical trial methods and studying the physiology underlying activity-based rehabilitation strategies. Other promising interventions include robotic therapy delivery, magnetic and electrical cortical stimulation, visualization, and constraint-driven aphasia therapies. Amphetamine has not been demonstrated to be effective, and studies of other pharmacologic agents are still preliminary. Future studies will incorporate refinements in clinical trial methods and improved activity- and technology-based interventions.