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Lockwood DR, Cassell JA, Smith JC, Houpt TA. Patterns of ingestion of rats during chronic oral administration of lithium chloride. Physiol Behav 2024; 275:114454. [PMID: 38161042 PMCID: PMC10878199 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2023.114454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Chronic lithium administration to rodents is used to explore the potential neural mechanisms of mood stabilization, as well as to model the side effects of chronic lithium on multiple organ systems. Oral administration of lithium in the maintenance diet or drinking water is convenient, but lithium can acutely affect intake and it can mediate acquisition of conditioned taste aversions (CTA). We compared ad libitum food and fluid intake by male rats with LiCl or NaCl solutions as their sole source of fluid across 20 days, with a commonly used dosage of LiCl (24 mM: 1 g / L LiCl). To quantify the pattern of intake, rats were housed in cages equipped with lickometers to detect licks and infrared photobeams to detect food access with 6-s resolution. To determine if rats formed a CTA to LiCl, they were subsequently tested with access to NaCl. Rats showed an immediate avoidance of the LiCl solution, as seen on the first day of access by an increased latency to initiate drinking and a decreased size of drinking bouts. Rats showed a differential response to LiCl vs. NaCl after as few as 5 licks. Chronic consumption of LiCl solution led to significantly decreased food and fluid intake compared to baseline, with concomitant weight loss. The decreased intake was realized by marked changes in the pattern of drinking and feeding bouts: a decrease in per-lick volume and a decrease in licks per drinking bout, and an increase in feeding bout duration resulting in an overall decrease in eating rate. Conversely, chronic NaCl access led to an increase in drinking bout number and licks/bout. The avoidance of LiCl was likely a combination of toxic effects of ingested LiCl and rapid acquisition of a learned aversion to the taste of LiCl, as shown by an extinguishable generalized aversion to NaCl solution during subsequent NaCl test days. The marked effect of chronic oral LiCl on ingestion may impact the oral dosing of lithium as well as the rat's metabolic status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denesa R Lockwood
- Department of Biological Science, Program in Neuroscience, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306-4295, United States
| | - Jennifer A Cassell
- Department of Biological Science, Program in Neuroscience, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306-4295, United States
| | - James C Smith
- Department of Psychology, Program in Neuroscience, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306-4295, United States
| | - Thomas A Houpt
- Department of Biological Science, Program in Neuroscience, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306-4295, United States.
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Gutierrez VA, Martin LE, Torregrossa AM. Salivary proteins rescue within-session suppression and conditioned avoidance in response to an intragastric quinine infusion. Physiol Behav 2024; 274:114430. [PMID: 38070721 PMCID: PMC11171411 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2023.114430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2023] [Revised: 10/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
A subset of salivary proteins (SPs) upregulates in response to a quinine-containing diet. The presence of these SPs then results in decreased bitter taste responding and taste nerve signaling. Bitter taste receptors in the oral cavity are also found in the stomach and intestines and contribute to behaviors that are influenced by post-oral signaling. It has been previously demonstrated that after several pairings of post-orally infused bitter stimuli and a neutral flavor, animals learn to avoid the flavor that was paired with gastric bitter, this is referred to as conditioned avoidance. Furthermore, animals will decrease licking of a neutral solution within a test session, when licking is paired with an intragastric bitter infusion; this has been described as within-session suppression. We used these paradigms to test the role of SPs in behaviors influenced by post-oral signaling. In both paradigms, the animal is given a test solution directly into the stomach (with or without quinine, and with or without SPs), and the infusions are self-administered by licking to a neutral solution (Kool-Aid). Quinine successfully conditioned a flavor avoidance, but, in a separate trial, we were unable to detect conditioning in the presence of SPs from donor animals. Likewise, quinine was able to suppress licking within the conditioned suppression paradigm, but the effect of the bitter was blocked in the presence of saliva containing SPs. Together, these data suggest that behaviors driven by post-oral signaling can be altered by SPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Ascencio Gutierrez
- Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, 14260, USA
| | - L E Martin
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, 97331, USA
| | - A-M Torregrossa
- Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, 14260, USA; University at Buffalo Center for Ingestive Behavior Research, Buffalo, New York, 14260, USA.
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Louro T, Carreira L, Caeiro I, Simões C, Ricardo-Rodrigues S, Rato AE, Capela E Silva F, Luís H, Moreira P, Lamy E. The Influence of (Poly)phenol Intake in Saliva Proteome: Short- and Medium-Term Effects of Apple. Foods 2023; 12:2540. [PMID: 37444277 DOI: 10.3390/foods12132540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Revised: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The relationship between salivary proteome and dietary habits was studied in previous works, where a relationship between salivary proteins like cystatins and polyphenol/tannin levels in diet was observed. However, it remains to be elucidated if this association results from an effect of polyphenol-rich food ingestion on saliva composition. The aim of this work was to test the effects of apple intake on the saliva proteome, both in the short and medium term (after 4 days of continuous intake). By incubating saliva samples with apple phenolic-rich extract, protein bands containing α-amylase, S-type cystatins, and proline-rich proteins (PRPs) appeared in the fraction that precipitated, showing the potential of these (poly)phenols to precipitate salivary proteins. Among these, it was salivary cystatins that presented changes in their levels both in the saliva samples collected immediately after apple intake and in the ones collected after 4 days of intake of an extra amount of apple. These results support the thought that intake is reflected in the salivary proteome. The effect of a polyphenol-rich food, like the apple, on salivary cystatin levels is in line with results observed in animal models and, due to the involvement of these proteins in oral food perception, it would be interesting to explore in future studies the effect of these changes on sensory perception and acceptance of polyphenol-rich food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Louro
- MED-Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE-Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Pólo da Mitra, University of Évora, Apartado 94, 7006-554 Évora, Portugal
| | - Laura Carreira
- MED-Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE-Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Pólo da Mitra, University of Évora, Apartado 94, 7006-554 Évora, Portugal
| | - Inês Caeiro
- MED-Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE-Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Pólo da Mitra, University of Évora, Apartado 94, 7006-554 Évora, Portugal
| | - Carla Simões
- MED-Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE-Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Pólo da Mitra, University of Évora, Apartado 94, 7006-554 Évora, Portugal
| | - Sara Ricardo-Rodrigues
- MED-Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE-Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Pólo da Mitra, University of Évora, Apartado 94, 7006-554 Évora, Portugal
| | - Ana Elisa Rato
- MED-Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE-Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Pólo da Mitra, University of Évora, Apartado 94, 7006-554 Évora, Portugal
- Department of Plant Science, School of Science and Technology, University of Évora, Pólo da Mitra, Apartado 94, 7002-554 Évora, Portugal
| | - Fernando Capela E Silva
- MED-Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE-Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Pólo da Mitra, University of Évora, Apartado 94, 7006-554 Évora, Portugal
- Department of Medical and Health Sciences, School of Health and Human Development, University of Évora, 7000-671 Évora, Portugal
| | - Henrique Luís
- Research Unit in Oral and Biomedical Sciences (UICOB), School of Dental Medicine and Rede de Higienistas Orais para o Desenvolvimento da Ciência (RHODes), University of Lisbon, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
- Center for Innovative Care and Health Technology (ciTechcare), Polytechnic of Leiria, 2411-901 Leiria, Portugal
- Health School, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre, 7300-555 Portalegre, Portugal
| | - Pedro Moreira
- Faculty of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Porto University (FCNAUP), 4150-180 Porto, Portugal
| | - Elsa Lamy
- MED-Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE-Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Pólo da Mitra, University of Évora, Apartado 94, 7006-554 Évora, Portugal
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Martin LE, Gutierrez VA, Torregrossa AM. The role of saliva in taste and food intake. Physiol Behav 2023; 262:114109. [PMID: 36740133 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2023.114109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 01/28/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Saliva is well-described in oral food processing, but its role in taste responsiveness remains understudied. Taste stimuli must dissolve in saliva to reach their receptor targets. This allows the constituents of saliva the opportunity to interact with taste stimuli and their receptors at the most fundamental level. Yet, despite years of correlational data suggesting a role for salivary proteins in food preference, there were few experimental models to test the role of salivary proteins in taste-driven behaviors. Here we review our experimental contributions to the hypothesis that salivary proteins can alter taste function. We have developed a rodent model to test how diet alters salivary protein expression, and how salivary proteins alter diet acceptance and taste. We have found that salivary protein expression is modified by diet, and these diet-induced proteins can, in turn, increase the acceptance of a bitter diet. The change in acceptance is in part mediated by a change in taste signaling. Critically, we have documented increased detection threshold, decreased taste nerve signaling, and decreased oromotor responding to quinine when animals have increases in a subset of salivary proteins compared to control conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura E Martin
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA
| | | | - Ann-Marie Torregrossa
- Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, 14216, USA; University at Buffalo Center for Ingestive Behavior Research, Buffalo, New York, 14216, USA.
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Davis L, Lee K, Wierenga M, Running C. Salivary flow and turbidity development inconsistently associated with lower taste intensity of vegetables and juices. Food Qual Prefer 2023; 106:104807. [PMID: 36911249 PMCID: PMC9997117 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2023.104807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The same phytochemicals that stimulate aversive sensations are often also responsible for purported health benefits in fruits and vegetables. Prior work indicates that some salivary proteins may reduce aversiveness of phytochemicals. In rodents, the salivary binding proteins have been shown to reduce bitter taste of polyphenols and alkaloids, but work in humans has focused primarily on polyphenol astringency (dry, rough, or puckery sensations). In this study, we tested if tastes of vegetable products might correlate to either salivary flow rate or the polyphenol binding capability of saliva, as measured by turbidity development when saliva is mixed with tannic acid. Participants (N=26) provided chewing-stimulated saliva samples and rated five juices and two chopped vegetables for bitterness, sourness, and sweetness intensity. Saliva was mixed with tannic acid and light absorbance was measured for quantification of haze development. Greater absorbance corresponded to less bitterness for one green vegetable juice blend, less sweetness for two green vegetable juices and chopped kale, and less sourness from cranberry juice. Greater salivary flow corresponded to less bitterness from chopped brussels sprouts, and less sweetness from one green vegetable juice blend and chopped kale. These findings indicate that greater salivary flow rate and presence of certain salivary binding proteins is not universally associated with lower aversive tastes from phytochemical-containing foods. Whether associations between these salivary properties are ingredient specific or simply not robustly related to taste in commercial products should be further investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lissa Davis
- Department of Nutrition Science, Purdue University, 700 W State St, West Lafayette, IN, USA 47907
| | - Keona Lee
- Department of Nutrition Science, Purdue University, 700 W State St, West Lafayette, IN, USA 47907
- School of Health Sciences, Purdue University, 550 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN, USA 47907
| | - Madison Wierenga
- Department of Nutrition Science, Purdue University, 700 W State St, West Lafayette, IN, USA 47907
- Department of Public Health, Purdue University, 812 W State St, West Lafayette, IN, USA 47907
| | - Cordelia Running
- Department of Nutrition Science, Purdue University, 700 W State St, West Lafayette, IN, USA 47907
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Schwartz M, Brignot H, Feron G, Hummel T, Zhu Y, von Koskull D, Heydel JM, Lirussi F, Canon F, Neiers F. Role of human salivary enzymes in bitter taste perception. Food Chem 2022; 386:132798. [PMID: 35344726 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.132798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The molecules that elicit taste sensation are perceived by interacting with the taste receptors located in the taste buds. Enzymes involved in the detoxification processes are found in saliva as well as in type II cells, where taste receptors, including bitter taste receptors, are located. These enzymes are known to interact with a large panel of molecules. To explore a possible link between these enzymes and bitter taste perception, we demonstrate that salivary glutathione transferases (GSTA1 and GSTP1) can metabolize bitter molecules. To support these abilities, we solve three X-ray structures of these enzymes in complexes with isothiocyanates. Salivary GSTA1 and GSTP1 are expressed in a large panel of subjects. Additionally, GSTA1 levels in the saliva of people suffering from taste disorders are significantly lower than those in the saliva of the control group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathieu Schwartz
- Université de Bourgogne-Franche Comté, CNRS, INRAE, Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation (CSGA), Dijon, France
| | - Hélène Brignot
- Université de Bourgogne-Franche Comté, CNRS, INRAE, Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation (CSGA), Dijon, France
| | - Gilles Feron
- Université de Bourgogne-Franche Comté, CNRS, INRAE, Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation (CSGA), Dijon, France
| | - Thomas Hummel
- Smell & Taste Clinic, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Yunmeng Zhu
- Smell & Taste Clinic, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Dorothee von Koskull
- Smell & Taste Clinic, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Jean-Marie Heydel
- Université de Bourgogne-Franche Comté, CNRS, INRAE, Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation (CSGA), Dijon, France
| | - Frédéric Lirussi
- PACE, Plateau d'Analyses Chromatographiques et Elémentaires, Department of Pharmacology-Toxicology & Metabolomics, University hospital of Besançon (CHU), 2 Boulevard Fleming, 25030, BESANCON, France; INSERM UMR1231, LipSTIC, University of Burgundy Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Francis Canon
- Université de Bourgogne-Franche Comté, CNRS, INRAE, Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation (CSGA), Dijon, France
| | - Fabrice Neiers
- Université de Bourgogne-Franche Comté, CNRS, INRAE, Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l'Alimentation (CSGA), Dijon, France.
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Saliva changes in composition associated to COVID-19: a preliminary study. Sci Rep 2022; 12:10879. [PMID: 35760827 PMCID: PMC9237082 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-14830-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV 2), is usually associated with a wide variety of clinical presentations from asymptomatic to severe cases. The use of saliva as a diagnostic and monitoring fluid has gained importance since it can be used to investigate the immune response and to direct quantification of antibodies against COVID-19. Additionally, the use of proteomics in saliva has allowed to increase our understanding of the underlying pathophysiology of diseases, bringing new perspectives on diagnostics, monitoring, and treatment. In this work, we compared the salivary proteome of 10 patients with COVID-19, (five patients with mild and five patients with severe COVID-19) and ten control healthy patients. Through the application of proteomics, we have identified 30 proteins whose abundance levels differed between the COVID-19 groups and the control group. Two of these proteins (TGM3 and carbonic anhydrase-CA6) were validated by the measurement of gGT and TEA respectively, in 98 additional saliva samples separated into two groups: (1) COVID-19 group, integrated by 66 patients who tested positive for COVID-19 (2) control group, composed of 32 healthy individuals who did not show any sign of disease for at least four weeks and were negative for COVID-19 in RT-PCR. In the proteomic study there were observed upregulations in CAZA1, ACTN4, and ANXA4, which are proteins related to the protective response against the virus disturbance, and the upregulation of TGM3, that is correlated to the oxidative damage in pulmonary tissue. We also showed the downregulation in cystatins and CA6 that can be involved in the sensory response to stimulus and possibly related to the presence of anosmia and dysgeusia during the COVID-19. Additionally, the presence of FGB in patients with severe COVID-19 but not in mild COVID-19 patients could indicate a higher viral aggregation and activation in these cases. In conclusion, the salivary proteome in patients with COVID-19 showed changes in proteins related to the protective response to viral infection, and the altered sensory taste perception that occur during the disease. Moreover, gGT and TEA could be potential biomarkers of respiratory complications that can occurs during COVID 19 although further larger studies should be made to corroborate this.
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Marquezin MCS, de Oliveira Scudine KG, Lamy E, Finassi CM, Carreira L, Segura WD, Rasera I, Pessotti ER, Castelo PM. Impact of gastroplasty on salivary characteristics, dental health status and oral sensory aspects: a controlled clinical study. J Oral Rehabil 2022; 49:1002-1011. [PMID: 35751503 DOI: 10.1111/joor.13353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Saliva is a non-invasive source of biomarkers useful in the study of different pathophysiological conditions. The qualitative and quantitative study of saliva, as well as the assessment of oral health, can be particularly useful for a better understanding of obesity due to its importance in the food oral perception and ingestion. OBJECTIVES To evaluate the effect of treatment of morbid obesity (dietary counselling versus gastroplasty) on salivary characteristics, oral sensory perception and dental health in a controlled study. METHODS 73 adults (60 females; 19-59 years) with morbid obesity were divided in: Control group (CG; n=34) followed-up during a 6-months dietary program, and Gastroplasty group (GG; n=39) evaluated immediately before, 3, and 6 months after gastroplasty. Dietary habits, Oral Health Impact Profile and xerostomia complaints were investigated by interview. The clinical examination included anthropometric and caries experience evaluation. Salivary flow rate, buffering capacity, total protein and alpha-amylase levels, and sensitivity for the 4 basic tastes were assessed. Two-way mixed model and sign test were applied. RESULTS Physical and clinical aspects did not differ between groups in the beginning of the study, and GG showed a rapid weight loss after surgery (p<0.001). An improvement in most of the dietary aspects was observed, especially in the GG. A worsening in the dental health status was observed over time in both groups, with an increase in the number of filled and decayed teeth. CG showed a better oral health-related quality of life, while xerostomia complains increased in GG after gastroplasty. Salivary flow rate remained stable in both groups, but a decrease in buffering capacity, total protein, and alpha-amylase activity was observed in GG after 6-months; taste sensitivity increased from baseline to 6-months in GG (p<0.05). CONCLUSION After 6-months of follow-up, patients undergoing gastroplasty presented an improvement in dietary habits and taste sensitivity. However, changes in saliva composition and a worsening in dental health status and xerostomia complaints were also observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Carolina Salomé Marquezin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Environmental, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Brazil
| | - Kelly Guedes de Oliveira Scudine
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Environmental, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Brazil
| | - Elsa Lamy
- MED-Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE-Global Change and Sustainability Institute, University of Évora, Portugal
| | - Carolina Martins Finassi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Environmental, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Brazil
| | - Laura Carreira
- MED-Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE-Global Change and Sustainability Institute, University of Évora, Portugal
| | - Wilson Dias Segura
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Environmental, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Brazil
| | - Irineu Rasera
- Faculdade de Ensino Superior da Amazônia Reunida (FESAR/AFYA), Brazil
| | | | - Paula Midori Castelo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Environmental, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Brazil
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Huang LC, Running CA. OUP accepted manuscript. Chem Senses 2022; 47:6637485. [PMID: 35809054 DOI: 10.1093/chemse/bjac013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Li-Chu Huang
- Department of Nutrition Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Cordelia A Running
- Department of Nutrition Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
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Davis LA, Running CA. Repeated exposure to epigallocatechin gallate solution or water alters bitterness intensity and salivary protein profile. Physiol Behav 2021; 242:113624. [PMID: 34655570 PMCID: PMC8579467 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2021.113624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Polyphenols, bitter and astringent compounds present in many healthy foods, induce varied sensory responses across individuals. These differences in liking and flavor intensity may be attributable, in part, to differences in saliva. In the current study, we tested the effect of repeated consumption of a bitter polyphenol (epigallocatechin gallate, EGCG) solution on perceived bitterness intensity and salivary protein composition. We hypothesized exposure to EGCG would cause an increase in concentrations of salivary proteins that inhibit bitterness of polyphenols. We also hypothesized that participants with higher habitual polyphenol, specifically the flavanols, intake would experience less bitterness from EGCG solutions than those with low habitual intake, and that the high flavanol consumers would be more resistant to salivary alterations. We also tested whether bovine milk casein, a food analog for salivary proteins that may suppress bitterness, would decrease bitterness intensity of the EGCG solution and mitigate effects of the intervention. Participants (N = 37) in our crossover intervention adhered to two-week periods of daily bitter (EGCG) or control (water) solution consumption. Bitterness intensity ratings and citric acid-stimulated saliva were collected at baseline and after each exposure period. Results indicate that bitterness intensity of the EGCG solution decreased after polyphenol (bitter EGCG) exposure compared to control (water) exposure. Casein addition also decreased bitterness intensity of the EGCG solution. While there was not a significant overall main effect of baseline flavanol intake on solution bitterness, there was an interaction between intervention week and baseline flavanol intake. Surprisingly, the higher flavanol intake group rated EGCG solutions as more bitter than the low and medium intake groups. Of proteins relevant to taste perception, several cystatins changed in saliva in response to the intervention. Interestingly, most of these protein alterations occurred more robustly after the control (water) exposure rather than the bitter (EGCG) exposure, suggesting that additional factors not quantified in this work may influence salivary proteins. Thus, we confirm in this study that exposure to bitterness suppresses ratings of bitterness over time, but more work needs to establish the causal factors of how diet influences salivary proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lissa A Davis
- Department of Nutrition Science, Purdue University, Stone Hall, 700 W State St., West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Cordelia A Running
- Department of Nutrition Science, Purdue University, Stone Hall, 700 W State St., West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.
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Simões C, Caeiro I, Carreira L, Silva FCE, Lamy E. How Different Snacks Produce a Distinct Effect in Salivary Protein Composition. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26092403. [PMID: 33919042 PMCID: PMC8122275 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26092403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Saliva secretion changes in response to different stimulation. Studies performed in animals and humans suggest that dietary constituents may influence saliva composition, although the dynamics of these changes, and how they are specific for each type of food, are little known. The objective of the present study was to access the short-term effects of different foods in salivation and salivary protein composition. Twelve participants were tested for four snacks (yoghurt, bread, apple and walnuts). Non-stimulated saliva was collected before and at 0′, 5′ and 30′ after each snack intake. Flow rate, total protein, alpha-amylase enzymatic activity and salivary protein profile were analyzed. Yoghurt and apple were the snacks resulting in higher salivary changes, with higher increases in flow rate and alpha-amylase activity immediately after intake. The expression levels of immunoglobulin chains decreased after the intake of all snacks, whereas cystatins and one pink band (proline-rich proteins—PRPs) increased only after yoghurt intake. Walnut’s snack was the one resulting in lower changes, probably due to lower amounts eaten. Even so, it resulted in the increase in one PRPs band. In conclusion, changes in saliva composition varies with foods, with variable changes in proteins related to oral food processing and perception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Simões
- Mediterranean Institute for Agricultural, Environmental and Development, University of Évora, 7002-556 Évora, Portugal; (C.S.); (I.C.); (L.C.)
| | - Inês Caeiro
- Mediterranean Institute for Agricultural, Environmental and Development, University of Évora, 7002-556 Évora, Portugal; (C.S.); (I.C.); (L.C.)
| | - Laura Carreira
- Mediterranean Institute for Agricultural, Environmental and Development, University of Évora, 7002-556 Évora, Portugal; (C.S.); (I.C.); (L.C.)
| | - Fernando Capela e Silva
- Department of Medical and Health Sciences, School of Health and Human Development and Mediterranean Institute for Agricultural, Environmental and Development, University of Évora, 7002-556 Évora, Portugal;
| | - Elsa Lamy
- Mediterranean Institute for Agricultural, Environmental and Development, University of Évora, 7002-556 Évora, Portugal; (C.S.); (I.C.); (L.C.)
- Correspondence:
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Salivary Protein Profile and Food Intake: A Dietary Pattern Analysis. J Nutr Metab 2021; 2021:6629951. [PMID: 33953975 PMCID: PMC8064783 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6629951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Saliva research has gained interest due to its potential as a source of biomarkers. One of the factors inducing changes in saliva, in the short term, is food intake, and evidence exist about changes in salivary proteome induced by some food components. Since this topic of research is in its early stages, it was hypothesized that saliva protein composition could be associated with different levels of adherence to dietary patterns that contain higher amounts of plant products. The aim of the present study was to test this hypothesis, in adults, by comparing salivary protein electrophoretic profiles of individuals with different diet characteristics, particularly dietary patterns (DP) that exhibit different proportions of animal and plant-based products. Dietary habits were assessed in 122 adults (61 from each sex, with ages ranging from 20 to 59 years) using Food Frequency Questionnaires. To identify the dietary patterns, a principal component analysis was used. Individual's non-stimulated saliva was evaluated for flow rate, pH, protein concentration, α-amylase activity, and electrophoretic protein profiles. Seven dietary patterns (DP) were identified. Salivary amylase enzymatic activity was positively associated with animal-based and starchy foods DP, and with plant-based fatty foods without wine DP. At the same time, protein bands containing amylase and type S cystatins were positively associated with the cheese/yoghurt and wine DP. Our results support the association of salivary proteomics and different dietary patterns and highlight the need of considering food consumption habits in studies using saliva, since this is a factor associated with variations in the composition of this fluid.
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Relationship between Mediterranean Diet Adherence and Saliva Composition. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13041246. [PMID: 33920127 PMCID: PMC8068872 DOI: 10.3390/nu13041246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Revised: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Dietary polyphenol exposure is known to change protein saliva composition in rodents, but less is known in humans. The present study aimed to assess the relationship between saliva protein composition and adherence to Mediterranean Diet (MD) and polyphenol intake levels. Participants were assessed for their dietary habits, which were converted in Mediterranean adherence level, according to Mediterranean Diet Adherence Score (MEDAS) score. Total polyphenol and total flavanol intakes were extrapolated from dietary data, using Phenol explorer database. Whole saliva was collected, and proteins were separated by SDS-PAGE. Salivary S-type cystatins were highly expressed in the group with medium adherence to MD, being positively correlated with wine intake in overweight individuals. The association between salivary amylase and MD adherence also depended on Body Mass Index (BMI), with a positive association only in normal weight individuals. Polyphenol intake was positively associated with S-type cystatins levels, particularly when flavanols were considered separately. These results show that saliva relationship with MD adherence depend on BMI, suggesting that normal weight and overweight individuals may have different salivary responses to diet. Moreover, these results reinforce the link between saliva and dietary polyphenols (flavanols) levels, leading to the hypothesis that salivary proteome can have a role in polyphenol-rich foods acceptance.
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Common bitter stimuli show differences in their temporal profiles before and after swallowing. Food Qual Prefer 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2020.104041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Crawford CR, Running CA. Addition of chocolate milk to diet corresponds to protein concentration changes in human saliva. Physiol Behav 2020; 225:113080. [PMID: 32679131 PMCID: PMC7484177 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.113080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Revised: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Salivary proteins have the potential to alter oral sensory perception of foods. In rodents, dietary polyphenol exposure increases salivary concentrations of polyphenol-binding proteins and several cystatins, which correlate with less aversion to polyphenol-rich solutions. If similar salivary shifts occur in humans, then increasing dietary polyphenols may improve orosensory experience of polyphenol-rich foods. We hypothesized that small dietary changes, focused on polyphenols, would increase expression of salivary binding proteins for polyphenols and thus suppress unpleasant polyphenol sensations. However, analogs of salivary polyphenol-binding proteins are found in foods. Thus, we also hypothesized that food-sourced analogs of these salivary proteins would mitigate changes in saliva and sensation. Human subjects (N=55) alternated weeks of consuming a low polyphenol diet and then a regular diet plus a polyphenol-rich chocolate milk (almond, containing no polyphenol-binding proteins, or bovine, containing polyphenol-binding proteins). Statistical analyses revealed both chocolate milk interventions corresponded to changes in relative expression of 96 proteins and calculated concentration of 146 proteins (both after correction for false discovery rate), out of 1,176 proteins identified through proteomics. Of the proteins that changed, proline-rich proteins and cystatins were noticeable, which reflects prior work in animal studies. Subjects rated all chocolate milks as less flavorful after the bovine chocolate milk intervention week compared to low polyphenol weeks, but generally sensory changes were minimal. However, the results confirm that dietary changes coincide with salivary changes, and that some of those changes occur in proteins that have potential to influence oral sensations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cordelia A Running
- Department of Nutrition Science and Department of Food Science, Purdue University Stone Hall 700 West State St. West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.
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Martin LE, Kay KE, James KF, Torregrossa AM. Altering salivary protein profile can decrease aversive oromotor responding to quinine in rats. Physiol Behav 2020; 223:113005. [PMID: 32526237 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.113005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Revised: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Bitter taste is often associated with toxins, but accepting some bitter foods, such as green vegetables, can be an important part of maintaining a healthy diet. It has previously been shown that animals exposed to quinine upregulate a set of salivary proteins (SPs), and those with upregulated SPs have increased rates of feeding on a quinine diet as well as increased brief-access licking to and higher detection thresholds for quinine. These studies suggest that SPs alter orosensory feedback; however, they rely on SPs upregulated by diet exposure and cannot control for the role of learning. Here, we use taste reactivity to determine if SPs can alter bitter taste in animals with no previous bitter diet experience. First, saliva with proteins stimulated by injections of isoproterenol and pilocarpine was collected from anesthetized rats; this "donor saliva" was analyzed for protein concentration and profile. Bitter-naïve rats were implanted with oral catheters and infused with taste stimuli dissolved in saliva that contained all of the SPs from the donors, saliva that was filtered of SPs, water, or artificial saliva. Their orofacial movements were recorded and quantified. We found that presence of quinine increased movements associated with aversive stimuli, but adding SPs to the infusion was sufficient to reduce aversive oromotor responding to quinine. The effect was dependent on the total protein concentration of the saliva, as protein concentration increased aversive responses decreased. Additionally, infusions of whole saliva altered aversive responding to quinine, but not other stimuli (citric acid, NaCl, sucrose). Our work suggests that effect of these SPs is specific and the presence of SPs is sufficient to decrease aversive orosensory feedback to bitter stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura E Martin
- Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14216, USA
| | - Kristen E Kay
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Kimberly F James
- Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14216, USA
| | - Ann-Marie Torregrossa
- Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14216, USA; University at Buffalo Center for Ingestive Behavior Research, Buffalo, NY 14216, USA.
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Martin LE, Kay KE, Torregrossa AM. Bitter-Induced Salivary Proteins Increase Detection Threshold of Quinine, But Not Sucrose. Chem Senses 2019; 44:379-388. [PMID: 31053859 PMCID: PMC6635886 DOI: 10.1093/chemse/bjz021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposures to dietary tannic acid (TA, 3%) and quinine (0.375%) upregulate partially overlapping sets of salivary proteins which are concurrent with changes in taste-driven behaviors, such as rate of feeding and brief access licking to quinine. In addition, the presence of salivary proteins reduces chorda tympani responding to quinine. Together these data suggest that salivary proteins play a role in bitter taste. We hypothesized that salivary proteins altered orosensory feedback to bitter by decreasing sensitivity to the stimulus. To that end, we used diet exposure to alter salivary proteins, then assessed an animal's ability to detect quinine, using a 2-response operant task. Rats were asked to discriminate descending concentrations of quinine from water in a modified forced-choice paradigm, before and after exposure to diets that alter salivary protein expression in a similar way (0.375% quinine or 3% TA), or 1 of 2 control diets. Control animals received either a bitter diet that does not upregulate salivary proteins (4% sucrose octaacetate), or a nonbitter diet. The rats exposed to salivary protein-inducing diets significantly decreased their performance (had higher detection thresholds) after diet exposure, whereas rats in the control conditions did not alter performance after diet exposure. A fifth group of animals were trained to detect sucrose before and after they were maintained on the 3% TA diet. There was no significant difference in performance, suggesting that these shifts in threshold are stimulus specific rather than task specific. Taken together, these results suggest that salivary proteins reduce sensitivity to quinine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura E Martin
- Department of Psychology, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Kristen E Kay
- Department of Psychology, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Ann-Marie Torregrossa
- Department of Psychology, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
- Center for Ingestive Behavior Research, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
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