Designing better water troughs: dairy cows prefer and drink more from larger troughs

Alterations in Rumination, Eating, Drinking and Locomotion Behavior in Dairy Cows Affected by Subclinical Ketosis and Subclinical Acidosis

This study delves into the effects of subclinical ketosis (SCK) and subclinical acidosis (SCA) on various parameters related to dairy cow rumination, eating, drinking and locomotion behavior. The research hypothesized that these subclinical metabolic disorders could affect behaviors such as rumination, feeding, and locomotion. A total of 320 dairy cows, with a focus on those in their second or subsequent lactation, producing an average of 12,000 kg/year milk in their previous lactation, were examined. These cows were classified into three groups: those with SCK, those with SCA, and healthy cows. The health status of the cows was determined based on the milk fat-protein ratio, blood beta-hydroxybutyrate, and the results of clinical examinations performed by a veterinarian. The data collected during the study included parameters from the RumiWatch sensors. The results revealed significant differences between the cows affected by SCK and the healthy cows, with reductions observed in the rumination time (17.47%) and various eating and chewing behaviors. These changes indicated that SCK had a substantial impact on the cows' behavior. In the context of SCA, the study found significant reductions in Eating Time 2 (ET2) of 36.84% when compared to the healthy cows. Additionally, Eating Chews 2 (EC2) exhibited a significant reduction in the SCA group, with an average of 312.06 units (±17.93), compared to the healthy group's average of 504.20 units (±18.87). These findings emphasize that SCA influences feeding behaviors and chewing activity, which can have implications for nutrient intake and overall cow health. The study also highlights the considerable impact of SCK on locomotion parameters, as the cows with SCK exhibited a 27.36% reduction in the walking time levels. These cows also displayed reductions in the Walking Time (WT), Other Activity Time (OAT), and Activity Change (AC). In conclusion, this research underscores the critical need for advanced strategies to prevent and manage subclinical metabolic disorders within the dairy farming industry. The study findings have far-reaching implications for enhancing the well-being and performance of dairy cattle. Effective management practices and detection methods are essential to mitigate the impact of SCK and SCA on dairy cow health and productivity, ultimately benefiting the dairy farming sector.

Effect of Climatic Condition, Type of Trough and Water Cleanliness on Drinking Behavior in Dairy Cows

Increasing ambient temperatures lead to higher water intake and higher risks of microbial growth in cattle troughs. This study aims to analyze drinking water quality and dairy cows' drinking behavior (n = 8081 drinking episodes) on a commercial farm with 135 and 144 lactating cows in two climatic conditions, considering trough type and cleanliness, respectively. Daily video recording was conducted at two trough types (two open troughs, 70 L; two-valve troughs, variable volume of 5-15 L) in the first two hours after feeding (n = 60 days in total) under cold (December 2019-February 2020) and warm ambient temperatures (September 2021). The trough cleaning scheme allowed cows to access either cleaned or uncleaned troughs in each system. Water quality was tested daily and analyzed at the beginning and end of the trials. In warmer ambient temperatures, fewer and-at uncleaned troughs and open troughs-shorter drinking episodes were recorded, with longer but fewer water intake periods, longer drinking breaks, and fewer sips (p < 0.0001). Considering the drinking episodes, respectively, water intake and drinking breaks in number and duration, the number of sips and the number of agonistic behaviors might optimize dairy cow water supply and hygiene management.

Comparison of Cattle Housing Systems Based on the Criterion of Damage to Barn Equipment and Construction Errors

Simple Summary

As a result of many years of use, dairy cattle barns are subject to gradual wear and degradation. Damage to technical equipment can be identified in many areas in the barn. These areas are used by dairy cattle, so it is important to recognize the problem of damage and the associated health risks for animals. The problem of damage to internal equipment (e.g., damage to the floor, partitions between lying stalls, feed ladders, drinking bowls) applies to both tie-stall and freestall barns, which are the most common in dairy farms. Such premises became an inspiration to compare barns with a tie-stall system, a freestall system and their individual areas (lying, feeding, milking and social) in terms of the amount of damage but also construction errors. Most damage per one barn was found in the feeding area of objects with a tie-stall housing system. More cow health problems (e.g., laminitis, hoof problems) were identified in the barns with the freestall housing system. Equipment failures and construction errors may disrupt efficient and animal-safe dairy production in the barn. The results of the research study may be an incentive for farmers to check the barns in terms of their technical wear.

Abstract

Dairy cattle housing systems are the subject of numerous studies, in which a strong emphasis is placed on the comparison of animal welfare, animal behavior, production indicators and labor inputs. Dairy cattle housing systems are linked to specific livestock buildings, which is a prerequisite for undertaking studies comparing barns and their technical equipment. The aim of the study was to compare barns with two types of housing systems, i.e., tie-stall and freestall, including the identification of technical wear in various areas used by animals. This objective was linked to the assessment of animal health problems in livestock facilities. The research covered 38 dairy farms, 19 of which kept cows in the tie-stall system and 19 in the freestall system. The barns in these farms were examined for technical damage and construction errors, assessed in four areas: lying, feeding, milking and social. The research results confirmed significant differences in the degree of damage to technical equipment in individual areas of barns and between barns with tie-stall and freestall housing systems. The conclusions indicate the need to link the degradation of barns and their technical equipment, as well as design errors with the evaluation of dairy cattle welfare in future studies.

The Value of ‘Cow Signs’ in the Assessment of the Quality of Nutrition on Dairy Farms

The aim of this review is to provide dairy farm advisors, consultants, nutritionists, practitioners, and their dairy farmer clients with an additional toolkit that can be used in the assessment of the quality of their dairy cattle nutrition. Cow signs are behavioral, physiological, and management parameters that can be observed and measured. They are detected by examining and observing the cattle. Other physiological parameters such as fecal scoring, rumen fill, and body condition scoring are also included in ‘cow signs’. The assessment should be both qualitative and quantitative; for example, is the cattle individual lame and what is the severity of lameness. The ‘diagnosis’ of a problem should be based on establishing a farm profile of ‘cow signs’ and other relevant information. Information gathered through assessment of cow signs should be used as an advisory tool to assist and improve decision making. Cow signs can be used as part of an investigation and or farm audit.

A risk-oriented evaluation of biofilm and other influencing factors on biological quality of drinking water for dairy cows

Despite the importance of livestock drinking water quality on animal physiology, welfare, and performance, influences such as biofilm formation on trough surfaces on microbial water quality are rarely researched. The objective of this study was to assess the microbial quality of water offered to lactating dairy cows and identify risk factors for poor water quality. We further aimed to determine the impact of biofilm formation on water quality and evaluate rapid test systems to score the hygiene status of dairy troughs on the farm. A total of 105 troughs located on 24 typical Western German dairy farms were sampled. Samples of livestock drinking water and biofilm were analyzed for aerobic total viable count (TVC), coliform count (CC), Escherichia coli, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and other bacteria resistant to 3rd generation cephalosporins (CRB). Surface protein- and adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-rapid tests were evaluated to detect biofilm formation. The influence of 22 selected fixed and variable trough characteristics on impaired livestock drinking water quality was evaluated by calculating odds ratios. The average TVC, CC, and E. coli counts were 4.4 ± 0.06 (mean ± SD), 1.7 ± 0.1, and 0.6 ± 0.1 log10 cfu per mL, respectively. CC was detectable in 94.3% of all water samples and E. coli in 48.6%. MRSA was found in pooled livestock drinking water samples of a single farm and CRB on three farms, suggesting that troughs might function as a reservoir of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, thereby contributing to an exchange of antibiotic-resistant bacteria between animals. Risk factors for the impairment of at least one microbial quality criteria (TVC, CC, or E. coli) increased significantly (P < 0.05) when using high-volume troughs, other trough materials than stainless steel, a lower distance to the milking parlor, heavy visible soiling, biofilm formation, and high ambient and high water temperatures. CC (r = 0.46; P < 0.001) and E. coli (r = 0.31; P < 0.01) of water samples correlated with their equivalent in biofilm and with the results of rapid tests on trough surfaces (0.31 > r > 0.19; P < 0.05). Addressing the identified risk factors could be an approach to ensure sufficient biological quality of livestock drinking water.

A review on water intake in dairy cattle: associated factors, management practices, and corresponding effects

In this changing climate scenario, the availability of potable water has become scarce for both humans and animals in many parts of the world. Continuous supply of water is crucial for animals' life as well as different body and sanitary maintenance needs. Water availability has a direct and indirect role in clenching thirst, feeding, cleaning of animals and their environment, and other dairy operations. Water intake by dairy animals is affected by several factors including body weight of animals, genetic makeup, dry matter intake, mineral content of feed offered, milk productivity, environmental conditions, and water temperature. Behavioral patterns of dairy animals are adversely affected by restriction of water supply to them. Researchers have recommended that ad libitum water supply should be assured to the farm animals to avoid any negative effect on their health and performances. In the recent years, there is growing interest in quantifying the effects of restricted water supply to dairy animals. Many studies have demonstrated that the availability of potable water for animals will be a great challenge soon. Therefore, the present review paper has been formulated to gain better understanding of the factors affecting water intake in dairy animals and management strategies to ensure availability of water resources essential for their health, production, and well-being.

Invited review: Freedom from thirst-Do dairy cows and calves have sufficient access to drinking water?

The importance of drinking water for production and animal welfare is widely recognized, but surveys and animal welfare assessment schemes suggest that many dairy calves and dairy cows do not have sufficient access. Limit milk-fed calves drink more water than calves fed milk ad libitum, but ad libitum milk-fed calves also require access to drinking water, as milk does not meet the animal's requirement for water. At hot ambient temperatures and when calves are sick, access to water is especially important and should be provided at all times. Many young calves do not have access to water throughout 24 h, and whether healthy young calves require free access to water at all times, or from which age, is not clear and requires further study. Dairy cow free water intake (FWI) is largely determined by milk yield, and high-yielding dairy cows may drink up 100 L of water per day. Dry matter, crude protein, and salt content of feed, as well as ambient temperature, have considerable effects on dairy cow water intake. Deprivation of water affects meal patterning for the cow, as well as increased subsequent rate of drinking and compensatory water intake. Although dairy cow ad libitum water intake may exceed the water provision necessary to maintain production, offering water for ad libitum intake may be necessary to safe guard animal welfare. Cattle are suction drinkers that prefer to drink from large open water surfaces, and Holstein dairy cows can drink at a rate of up to 24 L/min. Research on the effect of design and placement of water troughs for indoor-housed dairy cows on their drinking behavior and water intake is limited. Access to a water source at pasture increases the time cows spend there, and access to shade reduces water requirements during periods of warm weather. In both indoor and pastured cattle, there is a lack of knowledge about the effect of stocking of water troughs on competition, drinking behavior, and intake in dairy cows. Studies on the effect of available water trough length and placement, and of the number of cows being able to drink from the same trough of a given dimension, are needed to evaluate current recommendations.

The Topic of the Ideal Dairy Farm Can Inspire How to Assess Knowledge about Dairy Production Processes: A Case Study with Students and Their Contributions

The dairy farm and on-farm production processes are the subject of numerous evaluations. These are not only evaluations of the economic efficiency of milk production. Opinions expressed by various social groups are also an important contribution to improving the approach to milk production on the farm. As a result of such opinions, a vision of an ideal dairy farm may be formed. The aim of the study was to develop the thematic area of an ideal dairy farm in the opinion of two groups of students who were learning remotely (in the distance learning system) due to the Covid-19 pandemic. The first group consisted of six Erasmus+ students. The second group consisted of 70 full-time Polish students. As part of their homework, the students answered three questions about the ideal dairy farm. Students had 4 weeks to do their homework. Erasmus+ students’ homework was used to propose a ranking method for assessing the answers to three questions by the students themselves. Homework of Polish students was used to analyze the frequency of using certain keywords. Polish students, in their homework on the ideal dairy farm, mainly used the basic concepts related to dairy production. Unfortunately, a very small number of students used terms that represent a responsible approach to dairy production, including ethical aspects, freedom, sustainability, animal pain, antibiotics, and organic milk production. In conclusion, it was indicated that the curriculum should be structured in such a way as to raise students’ awareness of dairy production and its current challenges.

Beef Cattle on Pasture Have Better Performance When Supplied With Water Trough Than Pond

The behavior and performance of steers on pasture regarding water availability in troughs or in ponds were compared. Eight paddocks were randomly allocated to one treatment: POND (~30 m of diameter) or TROUGH (water trough, 120 cm diameter and 60 cm high and 500 L capacity). Eight groups of six beef steers were randomly assigned to one of the paddocks. The first 10 days were considered for animal habituation. Animals were individually weighed (days 0, 30, 60, and 90). Beginning in the day after each weighing on days 30 (Month 1), 60 (Month 2), and 90 (Month 3), behavior and animal distribution in the paddock were recorded by direct visual observation in three periods of 4 consecutive days. Water temperature and fecal and herbage DM were also recorded in these periods. Water intake was measured during 16 random days in the troughs. Data were analyzed using Generalized Linear Mixed Models, with treatment and period as fixed effects. TROUGH steers gained more weight (0.44 vs. 0.34 kg/day/animal; P ≤ 0.007) during the experiment and were heavier than the others at the end of the study (P ≤ 0.05). POND steers spent more time drinking water, but TROUGH steers increased the number of drinking events throughout the study (P ≤ 0.05), suggesting an adaptation for the new type of water source. Both treatments increased grazing time throughout the study, but not ruminating time (P ≤ 0.05). Walking time differed between treatments in all periods of behavior observation (P ≤ 0.05). Events of animal licking and ingesting salt of POND steers reduced throughout the study (P ≤ 0.05). The number of drinking events of TROUGH steers increased throughout the study, and drinking events were longer for POND steers than TROUGH steers (P ≤ 0.05). TROUGH steers spent more time on pasture on Month 2 (P ≤ 0.05). Period collection did not affect the water intake of TROUGH treatment (P > 0.05). This study demonstrates that water available in troughs rather than ponds for steers on pasture has positive effects on their weight gain and affects cattle behavior.

Hot weather increases competition between dairy cows at the drinker

Heat-stressed dairy cows on pasture will compete for resources that aid cooling, but it is not known how heat stress affects the competition for water by indoor-housed cows. The aim of this observational study was to evaluate how heat stress affects the behavior of indoor-housed cows at the drinker at both group and cow levels. For 3 wk after calving, cows were housed in a dynamic group of 20 animals in a pen with 12 electronic feed bins, 2 electronic water bins, and 24 freestalls. A total of 69 lactating Holstein dairy cows were enrolled over the 59-d study. The electronic water bins recorded time spent at the drinker, frequency of visits, water intake, and competitive events for 24 h/d. Competitive events were quantified using the number of replacements (recorded when there was a ≤29-s interval between 2 cows sequentially visiting the same drinker). The number of replacements a cow was involved in was used to determine her level of competitive success at the drinker (low, medium, high). The temperature-humidity index (THI) was recorded by the local weather station, and moving averages for daily maximum THI over a 3-d period were calculated. For the analysis of time spent at the drinker, frequency of visits, and water intake, the measures from all cows were averaged to create 1 observation per day, and the number of replacements at the drinker was summed. A linear regression was performed to determine the relationship between THI and group-level drinking behavior. At the cow level, a repeated measures mixed model, with fixed effects of level of competitive success, milk yield, and 3-d maximum THI and a first-order autoregressive covariance structure, was used to determine how increasing THI affects the drinking behavior of individual cows based on their level of competitive success. Feed intake was included as a fixed effect in the water intake model. We found that, with increasing THI, cows drank more water, spent more time at the drinker, made more visits to the drinker, and engaged in more competitive events at the drinker. In exploratory analysis, we found that cows with low competitive success at the drinker shifted their drinking behavior to avoid the drinker at the hottest and most competitive time of day. These results indicate that behavior can be used to indicate when cows feel hot. These measures may be of practical value in deciding when to provide cooling, especially for farms where attendance at the drinker can be monitored electronically.

Chewing and Drinking Activity during Transition Period and Lactation in Dairy Cows Fed Partial Mixed Rations

Simple Summary

It is common to feed cows varying levels of forage fibre in the time span before calving to lactation. The resulting changes in chewing time may help to evaluate if diets have adequate fibre content. Using rumination-halters to measure the chewing activities in dairy cows, we found diminished rumination and eating activity, especially around parturition. This indicates ruminal buffering insufficiency and a greater risk for rumen acidification during this period. In addition, reduced eating time in early-lactation cows was accompanied by reduced drinking time. We suggest that monitoring of chewing activity can be useful to assess rumen disorder risks of the cows during the transition period and rumination-halters may also be used as a tool to identify cows which are about to calve.

Abstract

Dairy cows need sufficient physically effective fibre (peNDF) in their diet to induce chewing with the latter stimulating salivation and maintaining rumen health. Thus, monitoring of chewing activity can be a non-invasive tool to assess fibre adequacy, and thus helping in the optimization of the diet. The objective of this study was to investigate and compare chewing activities of cows during transition period and in the course of lactation. Simmental dairy cows, in four different production groups such as dry period (from 8 to 6 weeks ante-calving), calving (24 h before and after calving), early-lactation (7–60 days in milk), and mid-lactation (60–120 days in milk) were used in the study. Cows were fed partial mixed rations supplemented with different amounts of concentrates. The chewing and drinking activity were recorded using rumination-halters (RumiWatch System, Itin+Hoch GmbH, Liestal, Switzerland). Feed data analysis showed that the peNDF content of the partial mixed ration (PMR) was highest during dry period, decreased around parturition, reaching the nadir in the lactation, in all cases, however, exceeding the peNDF requirements. Chewing data analysis showed that rumination time decreased (p < 0.05) in the time around parturition (from 460 min/d during dry period to 363 min/d 24 h before calving) and increased again in early-lactation (505 min/d), reaching a maximum in mid-lactation (515 min/d). Eating time was lowest for cows during early-lactation (342 min/d) and the highest for those in mid-lactation (462 min/d). Moreover, early-lactation cows spent less time (p < 0.05) drinking (8 min/d) compared to other groups (e.g., 24 min/d the day before calving and 20 min/d postpartum). Monitoring of chewing activity might be a useful tool to assess rumen disorder risks and welfare of the cows during the transition period. It further shows promising results to be used as a tool to identify cows that are shortly before calving.

The prevalence of Escherichia coli O157:H7 fecal shedding in feedlot pens is affected by the water-to-cattle ratio: A randomized controlled trial

Escherichia coli O157:H7 fecal shedding in feedlot cattle is common and is a public health concern due to the risk of foodborne transmission that can result in severe, or even fatal, disease in people. Despite a large body of research, few practical and cost-effective farm-level interventions have been identified. In this study, a randomized controlled trial was conducted to assess the effect of reducing the level of water in automatically refilling water-troughs on fecal shedding of E. coli O157:H7 in feedlot cattle. Pens in a feedlot in the Texas Panhandle were randomly allocated as control (total number: 17) or intervention (total number: 18) pens. Fecal samples (2,759 in total) were collected both at baseline and three weeks after the intervention, and tested for the presence of E. coli O157:H7 using immunomagnetic bead separation and selective culture. There was a strong statistical association between sampling date and the likelihood of a fecal sample testing positive for E. coli O157:H7. Pen was also a strong predictor of fecal prevalence. Despite accounting for this high level of clustering, a statistically significant association between reduced water levels in the trough and increased prevalence of E. coli O157:H7 in the feces was observed (Odds Ratio = 1.6; 95% Confidence Interval: 1.2–2.0; Likelihood Ratio Test: p = 0.02). This is the first time that such an association has been reported, and suggests that increasing water-trough levels may be effective in reducing shedding of E. coli O157:H7 in cattle feces, although further work would be needed to test this hypothesis. Controlling E. coli O157:H7 fecal shedding at the pre-harvest level may lead to a reduced burden of human foodborne illness attributed to this pathogen in beef.

Designing Better Water Troughs: Does Trough Color Influence Dairy Cows' Preference?

Eighteen lactating dairy cows were used to elucidate their preference for green, grey, or red troughs. The herd was managed under a rotational grazing system with ad-libitum access to water until 11:30 h. For 9 days, all cows were tested individually following the afternoon milking. Cows drank similar quantities, spent a similar amount of time drinking, and took a similar number of sips from the 3 trough colors (p > .05). In 75% of the tests, cows drank more than 95% of the test period from the same trough. Within this time, the percentage of choices did not differ among colors (33.3% green, 39.0% grey, and 27.7% red). When they chose the red trough, cows spent less time drinking (p ≤ .05) and tended to take fewer sips (p = .07), which could suggest a partial aversion to this color. Suboptimal water trough design may have long-term negative effects on both the production and welfare of dairy cattle; however, the results suggest that color does not play a major role in the drinking behavior of dairy cows.

Characterisation of smallholding dairy farms in southern Brazil

Smallholder dairy farmers that are responsible for 90% of the milk produced in Santa Catarina State, in southern Brazil, transitioned in recent decades from milk production for self-consumption to commercial dairying. The objective of this study was to identify groups sharing common characteristics, potentials and limitations and compare their main management practices, milk production and milk quality. We collected data from 124 farms distributed in 24 municipalities, using semi-structured interviews, inspection of the housing and milking environment, and live observations during one complete milking. Multivariate analyses revealed three groups of farmers: ‘Semi-Intensive’ (n = 51), ‘Pasture-Based’ (n = 50), and ‘Extensive’ (n = 23). Group differences included land and herd size (both larger in Semi-Intensive, P < 0.002); feeding management of dairy cows (e.g. greater use of pasture improvement techniques in Extensive and Pasture-Based, and more efficient rotational grazing management in Pasture-Based, P < 0.04); use of external inputs (e.g. lower use of concentrate and silage in Pasture-Based, P < 0.001); milking infrastructure and hygiene practices (better in Semi-Intensive, P < 0.04), and milk productivity (greater in Semi-Intensive, P < 0.001). The Extensive group conserves several features of the subsistence, traditional mode of milk production, and makes inefficient use of costly feeding practices, which threatens its sustainability. The two other groups of farms took different, almost opposite directions to deal with the limitations in farm area: the Semi-Intensive group have adopted an entrepreneurial farming style and the Pasture-Based, a more agroecological path. These results highlight the need to develop specific strategies and policies to help these different types of producers to coexist in the dairy production chain.

Interspecific interference competition at the resource patch scale: do large herbivores spatially avoid elephants while accessing water?

Animals may anticipate and try to avoid, at some costs, physical encounters with other competitors. This may ultimately impact their foraging distribution and intake rates. Such cryptic interference competition is difficult to measure in the field, and extremely little is known at the interspecific level. We tested the hypothesis that smaller species avoid larger ones because of potential costs of interference competition and hence expected them to segregate from larger competitors at the scale of a resource patch. We assessed fine-scale spatial segregation patterns between three African herbivore species (zebra Equus quagga, kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros and giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis) and a megaherbivore, the African elephant Loxodonta africana, at the scale of water resource patches in the semi-arid ecosystem of Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. Nine waterholes were monitored every two weeks during the dry season of a drought year, and observational scans of the spatial distribution of all herbivores were performed every 15 min. We developed a methodological approach to analyse such fine-scale spatial data. Elephants increasingly used waterholes as the dry season progressed, as did the probability of co-occurrence and agonistic interaction with elephants for the three study species. All three species segregated from elephants at the beginning of the dry season, suggesting a spatial avoidance of elephants and the existence of costs of being close to them. However, contrarily to our expectations, herbivores did not segregate from elephants the rest of the dry season but tended to increasingly aggregate with elephants as the dry season progressed. We discuss these surprising results and the existence of a trade-off between avoidance of interspecific interference competition and other potential factors such as access to quality water, which may have relative associated costs that change with the time of the year.

Navigating the iceberg: reducing the number of parameters within the Welfare Quality(®) assessment protocol for dairy cows

The Welfare Quality(®) protocols provide a multidimensional assessment of welfare, which is lengthy, and hence limited in terms of practicality. The aim of this study was to investigate potential 'iceberg indicators' which could reliably predict the overall classification as a means of reducing the length of time for an assessment and so increase the feasibility of the Welfare Quality(®) protocol as a multidimensional assessment of welfare. Full Welfare Quality(®) assessments were carried out on 92 dairy farms in England and Wales. The farms were all classified as Acceptable or Enhanced. Logistic regression models with cross validation were used to compare model fit for the overall classification on farms. 'Absence of prolonged thirst', on its own, was found to correctly classify farms 88% of the time. More generally, the inclusion of more measures in the models was not associated with greater predictive ability for the overall classification. Absence of prolonged thirst could thus, in theory, be considered to be an iceberg indicator for the Welfare Quality(®) protocol, and could reduce the length of time for a farm assessment to 15 min. Previous work has shown that the parameters within the Welfare Quality(®) protocol are important and relevant for welfare assessment. However, it is argued that the credibility of the published aggregation system is compromised by the finding that one resource measure (Absence of prolonged thirst) is a major driver for the overall classification. It is therefore suggested that the prominence of Absence of prolonged thirst in this role may be better understood as an unintended consequence of the published measure aggregation system rather than as reflecting a realistic iceberg indicator.

Strategies used by dairy family farmers in the south of Brazil to comply with organic regulations

The aims of this study were to investigate the environmental, feeding, and health management of organic (ORG) family dairy farms in the south of Brazil in comparison with conventional (CONV) farms, and to assess their degree of compliance with Brazilian organic legislation and the strategies they adopt to accomplish this (n=17 per group). During 2 visits to each farm in March and September, 2010, observations were made on the environment, feed, and health management, followed by bulk milk testing, clinical evaluation, and breed assessment of each individual cow, and an evaluation of diseases and treatments reported within the period. Additional data were collected directly from the farmers through direct interviews. The number of lactating cows was, on average, 11 (range 5 to 19) in the ORG and 16 (range 7 to 42) in the CONV herds. The ORG herds presented a lower percentage of the Holstein breed; whereas CONV herds were predominantly Holstein, in the ORG herds, only 2 herds were 100% Holstein and the remaining herds were crosses of Holstein, Jersey, and Gir (Bos indicus) cattle. Milk production per cow was lower (10.2 vs. 15.1 ± 1.22 L/cow, respectively) in ORG than in the CONV farms. The ORG farms offered less concentrate feed than CONV farms and had better pasture management. Organic farmers reported using phytotherapic and homeopathic products, and pasture management as a strategy to keep infection levels of endo- and ectoparasites low, whereas CONV farmers regularly used anthelmintics and acaricides. Milk production was lower in ORG than in CONV farms, but cow health and condition scores were broadly similar, indicating that the with these strategies ORG farms were able to secure levels of animal welfare comparable with CONV farms while complying with organic regulation, although at the cost of lower cow productivity.

Evaluating results of the Welfare Quality multi-criteria evaluation model for classification of dairy cattle welfare at the herd level

The Welfare Quality multi-criteria evaluation (WQ-ME) model aggregates scores of single welfare measures into an overall assessment for the level of animal welfare in dairy herds. It assigns herds to 4 welfare classes: unacceptable, acceptable, enhanced, or excellent. The aim of this study was to demonstrate the relative importance of single welfare measures for WQ-ME classification of a selected sample of Dutch dairy herds. Seven trained observers quantified 63 welfare measures of the Welfare Quality protocol in 183 loose housed- and 13 tethered Dutch dairy herds (herd size: 10 to 211 cows). First, values of welfare measures were compared among the 4 welfare classes, using Kruskal-Wallis and Chi-squared tests. Second, observed values of single welfare measures were replaced with a fictitious value, which was the median value of herds classified in the next highest class, to see if improvement of a single measure would enable a herd to reach a higher class. Sixteen herds were classified as unacceptable, 85 as acceptable, 78 as enhanced, and none as excellent. Classification could not be calculated for 17 herds because data were missing (15 herds) or data were deemed invalid because the stockperson disturbed behavioral observations (2 herds). Herds classified as unacceptable showed significantly more very lean cows, more severely lame cows, and more often an insufficient number of drinkers than herds classified as acceptable. Herds classified as acceptable showed significantly more cows with high somatic cell count, with lesions, that could not be approached closer than 1m, colliding with components of the stall while lying down, and lying outside the lying area, and showed fewer cows with diarrhea, more often had an insufficient number of drinkers, and scored lower for the descriptors "relaxed" and "happy" than herds classified as enhanced. Increasing the number of drinkers and reducing the percentage of cows colliding with components of the stall while lying down were the changes most effective in allowing herds classified as unacceptable and acceptable, respectively, to reach a higher class. The WQ-ME model was not very sensitive to improving single measures of good health. We concluded that a limited number of welfare measures had a strong influence on classification of dairy herds. Classification of herds based on the WQ-ME model in its current form might lead to a focus on improving these specific measures and divert attention from improving other welfare measures. The role of expert opinion and the type of algorithmic operator used in this model should be reconsidered.

Invited review: associations between variables of routine herd data and dairy cattle welfare indicators

As farm animal welfare is high on the political and societal agendas of many countries, considerable pressure exists to establish audit programs in which farm animal welfare is routinely monitored. On-farm assessment of animal welfare, however, is time-consuming and costly. A promising strategy to monitor animal welfare more efficiently is to first estimate the level of animal welfare on a farm based on routine herd data that are available in national databases. It is not currently known which variables of routine herd data (VRHD) are associated with dairy cattle welfare indicators (WI). Our aim was to identify VRHD that are associated with WI in a literature review. The 27 VRHD used in this review included the main types of data that are currently collected in national herd databases of developed countries, and related to identification and registration, management, milk production, and reproduction of dairy herds. The 34 WI used in this review were based on the Welfare Quality Assessment Protocol for Cattle. The search yielded associations in 146 studies. Twenty-three VRHD were associated with 16 WI. The VRHD that related to milk yield, culling, and reproduction were associated with the largest number of WI. Few associations were found for WI that referred to behavioral aspects of animal welfare, nonspecific disease symptoms, or resources-based indicators. For 18 WI, associations with VRHD were not significant (n=5 WI) or no studies were found that investigated associations with VRHD (n=13 WI). It was concluded that many VRHD have potential to estimate the level of animal welfare on dairy farms. As strengths of associations were not considered in this review, however, the true value of these VRHD should be further explored. Moreover, associations found at the animal level and in an experimental setting might not appear at the farm level and in common practice and should be investigated. Cross-sectional studies using integrated welfare scores at the farm level are needed to more accurately determine the potential of VRHD to estimate levels of animal welfare on dairy farms.

The preference for water nipples vs. water bowls in dairy goats

Background

Previous studies have reported that the design of the water dispensers can influence the water intake in farm animals. Horses and dairy cows seem to prefer to drink from an open surface whereas sheep and pigs apparently prefer water nipples, probably because of the worse water quality in water bowls. The aim of the present study was to examine the preference of dairy goats for water nipples or water bowls.

Methods

In each of the two experiments (exp. 1, dry goats, exp. 2 lactating goats), 42 dairy goats were allotted into 6 groups of 7 goats. In period 1, the goats had access to a water nipple. In period 2, they had access to a water bowl and in period 3 (preference test) they had access to both a water nipple and a water bowl. Water usage and wastage was recorded and water intake (water usage - water wastage) was calculated for each group for the two last days of each period. In experiment 2, water samples from each dispenser were analyzed for heterotrophy germs at 22°C, Escherichia coli and turbidity.

Results

Water usage was higher from water nipples than from water bowls both in experiment 1 (dry goats) and experiment 2 (lactating goats). There was however, no difference in water intake from water nipples and water bowls. In the preference test (period 3), the water intake tended to be higher from the water nipple than from the water bowl both for the dry goats (exp. 1) and lactating goats (exp. 2). Especially for the dry goats, the differences between groups were large. Turbidity and heterotrophy germs were much higher in the samples from the water bowls than from the water nipples.

Water wastage from the water bowls was negligible compared to the water nipples. From the water nipples the water wastage was 30% and 23% of water usage for the dry and lactating goats respectively.

Conclusions

We conclude that type of water dispenser (nipple or bowl) was probably of minor importance for water intake in goats, but water bowls had a lower water quality.

PREFERÊNCIAS TÉRMICAS DE VACAS LEITEIRAS EM SISTEMA DE CONFINAMENTO FREESTALL

As mudanças do microclima de alojamento podem promover alterações nocomportamento animal, onde fica priorizada sua preferência térmica. As medidasconvencionais são pouco precisas, podendo levar a eventual erro na interpretação dosresultados. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo identificar com precisão, aspreferências térmicas de vacas leiteiras alojadas em galpão de freestall, em função daambiência do local. O experimento foi realizado em uma fazenda comercial em SãoPedro, SP, onde as vacas foram monitoradas através vídeos provenientes de seismicro-câmeras coloridas com alta resolução e lente de 120 graus para registrar o localocupado. Foram realizadas observações visuais posteriores dos vídeos, para analisaro comportamento. O galpão foi dividido em 18 quadrantes virtuais, para o mapeamentodas distribuições de temperatura, umidade relativa e velocidade do ar ambientes, sendoos dados processados usando o programa computacional Surfer®, para analisar a suahomogeneidade. Os resultados obtidos da análise multivariada com os dados dasobservações comportamentais apontaram no gráfico de Componentes Principais, aspreferências das vacas consideradas importantes, por se obter resposta com vetoresexpressivos, quando afetadas pelo ambiente de alojamento: bebendo água, comendoe deitadas na cama. As distribuições do ambiente dentro do galpão não foramhomogêneas e variavam em função do uso dos equipamentos de climatização.Concluiu-se que as vacas tiveram, prioritariamente, preferência pelos locais comambiente mais ameno e velocidade de ar mais alta.

Algorithms for dairy barn design: resting, feeding, and exercise

This study presents a series of algorithms designed to assist farmers and other decision-makers in the design of dairy cattle housing. Four algorithms have been developed, each for a different basic design (2 rows head-to-head, 2 rows head-to-wall, 3 rows, or rows perpendicular to feed alley). Each algorithm requires input of herd size and various other parameters (e.g., free-stall width), depending on the design; the output gives barn layout and overall size, thus facilitating comparison of designs in terms of financial cost and animal welfare. Although these algorithms have been developed primarily for small family farms in Galicia (northwest Spain) with herd sizes of up to 250, they could be useful for herds of any size, because herd size is an input parameter. We consider that these algorithms are useful tools for dairy farm planning, and they can be readily incorporated into personal computer applications, greatly facilitating their application.