Effects of an Enhanced Human Interaction Program on shelter dogs’ behaviour analysed using a novel nonparametric test

Participation in a Prison-Based Training Programme Is Beneficial for Rescue Dogs

Dogs are often relinquished because of behavioural issues which may be exacerbated in rehoming centres. Prison-based dog training programmes (DTPs) may enhance outcomes for rescue dogs by providing socialisation and training opportunities to improve behaviour, welfare and likelihood of rehoming. We assessed whether dogs benefitted from participation, 1-3 times per week, in a prison-based DTP in which male young offenders learn how to train and care for dogs waiting to be rehomed. Within DTP sessions, there was significant improvement on a range of training tasks (n = 42 dogs). Analyses of videos (n = 17 dogs) in the kennels and a training barn pre- and post-DTP participation showed improvement in some positive behaviours, but no significant change in other behaviours. Subjective ratings by staff of the dogs' behaviour were made (n = 20 dogs). Desirable behaviours (e.g., playful/friendly) increased, and most undesirable behaviours (e.g., frustrated and noisy) decreased. Participation in the DTP did not mitigate all negative behaviours. However, improvements are consistent with enhanced welfare and likelihood of successful rehoming. Prison-based DTPs can be effective in supporting the work of animal rescue organisations to improve outcomes for dogs, while offering people in custody an opportunity to engage in purposeful activity and provide a community service.

Environmental enrichments and data-driven welfare indicators for sheltered dogs using telemetric physiological measures and signal processing

Shelters are stressful environments for domestic dogs which are known to negatively impact their welfare. The introduction of outside stimuli for dogs in this environment can improve their welfare and life conditions. However, our current understanding of the influence of different stimuli on shelter dogs' welfare is limited and the data is still insufficient to draw conclusions. In this study, we collected 28 days (four weeks) of telemetry data from eight male dogs housed in an Italian shelter for a long period of time. During this period, three types of enrichment were introduced into the dogs' pens for one week each: entertaining objects, intraspecific, and interspecific social enrichment, by means of the presence of female conspecifics and the presence of a human. To quantify their impact, we introduce novel metrics as indicators of sheltered dogs' welfare based on telemetry data: the variation of heart rate, muscle activity, and body temperature from an average baseline day, quality of sleep, and the regularity for cyclicity of the aforementioned parameters, based on the day-night cycle. Using these metrics, we show that while all three stimuli statistically improve the dogs' welfare, the variance between individual dogs is large. Moreover, our findings indicate that the presence of female conspecific is the best stimulus among the three explored options which improves both the quality of sleep and the parameters' cyclicity. Our results are consistent with previous research findings while providing novel data-driven welfare indicators that promote objectivity. Thus, this research provides some useful guidelines for managing shelters and improving dogs' welfare.

Why do dogs wag their tails?

Tail wagging is a conspicuous behaviour in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris). Despite how much meaning humans attribute to this display, its quantitative description and evolutionary history are rarely studied. We summarize what is known about the mechanism, ontogeny, function and evolution of this behaviour. We suggest two hypotheses to explain its increased occurrence and frequency in dogs compared to other canids. During the domestication process, enhanced rhythmic tail wagging behaviour could have (i) arisen as a by-product of selection for other traits, such as docility and tameness, or (ii) been directly selected by humans, due to our proclivity for rhythmic stimuli. We invite testing of these hypotheses through neurobiological and ethological experiments, which will shed light on one of the most readily observed yet understudied animal behaviours. Targeted tail wagging research can be a window into both canine ethology and the evolutionary history of characteristic human traits, such as our ability to perceive and produce rhythmic behaviours.

Here Puppy, Chew on This: Short-Term Provision of Toys Does Not Improve Welfare in Companion Dogs

Retail dog toys are often provided to companion animals to provide cognitive and physical stimu- lation and improve the animals' quality of life. These toys, sometimes known as "enrichment toys", have been shown to play a role in increasing appetite and activity levels and decreasing undesirable behaviors (e.g., barking, self-isolating behaviors) in some domestic dog (Canis familiaris) populations. In this study, we evaluate the effect of toys on appetite, activity levels, and positive affective states as measures of well- being in companion dogs. Behaviors were compared before and after regular interactions with different types of toys over twelve days. We found that provisioning companion dogs with toys did not significantly alter their activity level, rate of food consumption, or cognitive bias. While dogs who received more complex toys showed a slightly improved cognitive bias, there were no significant differences in behaviors be- tween the subjects who received "less complex" toys (e.g., a bone, ball) and "more complex" toys (e.g., puzzle toys). We conclude with reflections on the relevance of our subject population to the result seen, and on the different forms of the cognitive bias test.

Using a Delphi method to estimate the relevance of indicators for the assessment of shelter dog welfare

The European regulatory framework lacks standardisation as regards the minimum requirements for shelter facilities, making defining welfare standards for dogs challenging. Dog (Canis familiaris) welfare assessments should consist of a comprehensive set of measurements that allow the calculation of an overall 'welfare score.' The Shelter Quality protocol was developed for the purpose of assessing shelter dog welfare. The study aims to establish a standardised system for evaluating shelter dog welfare by obtaining agreement from experts on the weighting of different measures contributing to an overall welfare score. The Delphi technique is a widely used method for establishing consensus among experts. Two Delphi procedures were implemented and we compared their effectiveness in achieving expert consensus by evaluating rounds' numbers required to reach consensus and the response and attrition rates. Expert consensus was achieved in Delphi 1 when the standard deviation in the expert weightings was ≤ 5. This was achieved easily for the welfare score weightings of the four principles: 'Good feeding', 'Good housing', 'Good Health', and 'Appropriate behaviour.' Animal-based measures were found to reach consensus more quickly than resource-based measures. In Delphi 2, we used the coefficient of variation to determine consensus. No statistical differences were found between the two Delphi methods for attrition rate, response rate or number of participants. Continuing rounds until a consensus is reached is recommended as this method balances time and participant fatigue. A standardised scoring system is provided, using a single overall score of welfare that can be used to compare welfare standards between shelters.

The Power of a Positive Human-Animal Relationship for Animal Welfare

Domestic animals often seek and enjoy interacting with humans. Positive human-animal relationships can elicit positive emotions and other positive welfare outcomes. Nevertheless, our understanding of the underlying processes that govern the positive perception of humans by animals is incomplete. We cover the potential mechanisms involved in the development and maintenance of positive human-animal relationships from the perspective of the animal. This encompasses habituation, associative learning, and possibly attachment or bonding based on communication and social cognition. We review the indicators from the literature to assess a positive human-animal relationship. We operationally define this positive relationship as the animal showing voluntary approach and spatial proximity (seeking) and signs of anticipation, pleasure, relaxation, or other indicators of a rewarding experience from interacting with the human. For research, we recommend accounting for the baseline human-animal relationship in the animal's everyday life, and incorporating a control treatment rather than only comparing positive to negative interaction treatments. Furthermore, animal characteristics, such as previous experience, genetics, and individual predisposition, as well as contextual characteristics related to the social and physical environment, may modulate the perception of humans by animals. The human-animal relationship is also influenced by human characteristics, such as the person's familiarity to the animal, attitudes, skills, and knowledge. We highlight implications for current practices and suggest simple solutions, such as paying attention to the animal's behavioral response to humans and providing choice and control to the animal in terms of when and how to interact with humans. Practical applications to achieve a positive perception of humans could be better utilized, such as by incorporating training principles, while keeping in mind trust and safety of both partners. Overall, there is growing evidence in the scientific literature that a positive human-animal relationship can bring intrinsic rewards to the animals and thereby benefit animal welfare. Further research is needed on the underlying processes to establish an effective positive human-animal relationship, especially in regard to the type, frequency, and length of human interaction necessary. In particular, the importance of providing animals with a sense of agency over their interactions with humans remains poorly understood.

Sex of Walker Influences Scent-marking Behavior of Shelter Dogs

Simple Summary

In diverse settings, human presence and handling influence the behavior and physiology of other animals, often causing increased vigilance and stress, especially if the human is unfamiliar. Domestic dogs are unusual in that human interaction often reduces stress and behavioral signs of stress. Nevertheless, there is some evidence that the sex of an unfamiliar person can influence canine behavior. To determine whether sex of an unfamiliar walker might influence the behavior of dogs at an animal shelter, we observed 100 dogs during leash walks and recorded all occurrences of scent-marking behaviors. Male dogs urinated at higher rates when walked by unfamiliar women than when walked by unfamiliar men. Female dogs urinated at similar rates when walked by unfamiliar men and unfamiliar women. Sex of walker also influenced urinary posture in male dogs. Both male and female dogs were more likely to defecate when walked by unfamiliar women than when walked by unfamiliar men. Based on our findings, and those of others, we suggest that the sex of all observers and handlers be reported in behavioral studies of dogs and considered in behavioral evaluations at animal shelters, where results can impact whether or not a dog is made available for adoption.

Abstract

Interactions with humans influence the behavior and physiology of other animals, and the response can vary with sex and familiarity. Dogs in animal shelters face challenging conditions and although contact with humans typically reduces stress and behaviors associated with stress, evidence indicates that shelter dogs react differently to unfamiliar men and women. Given that some aspects of canine scent-marking behavior change under fearful conditions, we examined whether sex of an unfamiliar walker would influence scent-marking behavior of 100 shelter dogs during leash walks. Male dogs urinated at higher rates when walked by unfamiliar women than when walked by unfamiliar men; female dogs urinated at similar rates when walked by unfamiliar women and unfamiliar men. Sex of walker influenced urinary posture in male dogs, but not in female dogs. Both male and female dogs were more likely to defecate when walked by unfamiliar women than by unfamiliar men. Based on our findings that shelter dogs behave differently in the presence of unfamiliar men and women, we suggest that researchers conducting behavioral studies of dogs record, consider in analyses, and report the sex of observers and handlers as standard practice. We also recommend recording the sex of shelter staff present at behavioral evaluations because the results of these evaluations can impact dog welfare.

The effects of exercise and calm interactions on in-kennel behavior of shelter dogs

Over-activity, or excessive locomotion and barking in the kennel, may be unattractive to adopters and an indicator of poor welfare of kenneled dogs. The study assessed the efficacy of two common enrichment strategies, providing calm interaction and additional exercise, on in-kennel behavior in 16 shelter dogs. Both interventions resulted in appropriate behavior just prior to the sessions (t=2.10, df=7, p=0.03 and F [2216]=7.58, p=0.0007, respectively), but both also resulted in an increase of some undesirable behaviors immediately after the dogs were taken back to their kennels (F [3216]=7.77, p=0.0001 and F (5216)=10.1, p<0.0001 respectively). Right after receiving additional exercise, the dogs spent more time in back and forth motion in the kennel. Right after receiving the calm interaction, the dogs spent less time in the front of the kennel, less time facing forward, and more time engaging in back and forth motion. However, dogs also spent less time barking and jumping on the kennel door right after the calm interaction. The results suggest that both interventions may be useful, but shelter administrators and volunteers must take all of the behavioral changes into account when administering these interventions.

Effects of Video Footage Versus Photographs on Perception of Dog Behavioral Traits

Photographs are frequently used to promote adoption of dogs on rescue shelter websites. While physical traits are well illustrated via photographs, conveying a dog's behavioral traits is more problematic. Traits such as sociability, obedience, and friendliness are likely to be better displayed via video footage. This study explored the effects of video versus photographs on the perception of dog behavioral traits. Four dogs from a Gloucestershire Rescue Shelter (2 desirable breeds, 2 from a stigmatized breed) were individually photographed, and a 30-s video of each was recorded. Two questionnaires were produced containing either a video or photograph of each dog. Each questionnaire presented all 4 dogs but via different media. Participants rated their agreement with 12 statements relating to their perceptions of the dog seen. Dogs viewed via video were considered to be more trainable, intelligent, friendly, and gentle and less dominant, aggressive, and unsociable. This finding was observed in desired and stigmatized breeds. Perceived behavioral traits can impact the likelihood of adoption. These findings suggest that greater use of video footage by rehoming shelters could help promote dog adoptions.

Training Reduces Stress in Human-Socialised Wolves to the Same Degree as in Dogs

The welfare of animals in captivity is of considerable societal concern. A major source of stress, especially for wild animals, is the lack of control over their environment, which includes not being able to avoid contact with human beings. Paradoxically, some studies have shown that interactions with human beings may improve the welfare of wild animals in captivity. Here, we investigated the behavioural (behaviours indicative of cooperation or stress) and physiological (variations in salivary cortisol concentrations) effects of the increasingly used practice of training wild animals as a way to facilitate handling and/or as behavioural enrichment. We evaluated the effects of indoor training sessions with familiar caretakers on nine human-socialised individuals of a wild species, the wolf (Canis lupus), in comparison to nine individuals of its domesticated form, the dog (Canis lupus familiaris). All animals were raised and kept in intraspecific packs under identical conditions-in accordance with the social structure of the species-in order to control for socialisation with human beings and familiarity with training. We also collected saliva samples of trainers to measure GC and testosterone concentrations, to control for the effects of trainers' stress levels on the responses of the animals. During the training sessions, separated from pack members, the animals stayed voluntarily close to the trainers and mostly adequately performed requested behaviours, indicating concentration to the task. Similarly to dogs, the salivary cortisol level of wolves-used as an index of stress-dropped during these sessions, pointing to a similar stress-reducing effect of the training interaction in both subspecies. The responses to the requested behaviours and the reduction in salivary cortisol level of wolves and dogs varied across trainers, which indicates that the relaxing effect of training has a social component. This points to another factor affecting the welfare of animals during the sessions, beside the rewarding effect of getting food and control over the situation by successfully completing a task. As all responses performed by the animals corresponded to cues already familiar to them, the reported effects were likely due to the above cited factors rather than to a learning process. Our results support previous findings suggesting that training is a potentially powerful tool for improving welfare in some wild social canids by creating structured and positive interactions between these animals and their human caretakers.

RandAgiamo™, a Pilot Project Increasing Adoptability of Shelter Dogs in the Umbria Region (Italy)

Simple Summary

In Italy, dog shelters are overcrowded because the rate of dog adoption is lower than that of abandonment. A project called “RandAgiamo” was implemented in a rescue shelter in central Italy. RandAgiamo provides training, socialization and advertising of adult shelter dogs. Official data of the Umbria regional health authorities from the year 2014 showed a higher rate of adoption in shelters involved in the project. RandAgiamo dogs had triple odds of being adopted compared to others housed in shelters of the same province. The increase in adoption rate can be beneficial for both dog welfare and shelter management.

Abstract

Current Italian legislation does not permit euthanasia of dogs, unless they are ill or dangerous. Despite good intentions and ethical benefits, this “no-kill policy” has caused a progressive overpopulation of dogs in shelters, due to abandonment rates being higher than adoption rates. Shelter overcrowding has negative implications for dog welfare and increases public costs. The aim of this paper is to describe the pilot project “RandAgiamo” implemented in a rescue shelter in the Umbria Region and to evaluate its effectiveness on the rate of dog adoption using official data. RandAgiamo aimed to increase adult shelter dogs’ adoptability by a standard training and socialization programme. It also promoted dogs’ visibility by publicizing them through social media and participation in events. We analysed the official data of the Umbria regional health authorities regarding dog shelters of the Perugia province of the year 2014. In the RandAgiamo shelter, the dog adoption rate was 27.5% higher than that of dogs housed in other shelters located in the same geographical area (p < 0.001). The RandAgiamo project could be beneficial for the dogs’ welfare, owner satisfaction, shelter management, and public perception of shelter dogs. However, staff were required to provide dog training and related activities.

[Statistical tests in medical research: traditional methods vs. multivariate NPC permutation tests]

Statistical tests in medical research: traditional methods vs. multivariate npc permutation tests.Within medical research, a useful statistical tool is based on hypotheses testing in terms of the so-called null, that is the treatment has no effect, and alternative hypotheses, that is the treatment has some effects. By controlling the risks of wrong decisions, empirical data are used in order to possibly reject the null hypotheses in favour of the alternative, so that demonstrating the efficacy of a treatment of interest. The multivariate permutation tests, based on the nonparametric combination - NPC method, provide an innovative, robust and effective hypotheses testing solution to many real problems that are commonly encountered in medical research when multiple end-points are observed. This paper discusses the various approaches to hypothesis testing and the main advantages of NPC tests, which consist in the fact that they require much less stringent assumptions than traditional statistical tests. Moreover, the related results may be extended to the reference population even in case of selection-bias, that is non-random sampling. In this work, we review and discuss some basic testing procedures along with the theoretical and practical relevance of NPC tests showing their effectiveness in medical research. Within the non-parametric methods, NPC tests represent the current "frontier" of statistical research, but already widely available in the practice of analysis of clinical data.

Refining dosing by oral gavage in the dog: a protocol to harmonise welfare

INTRODUCTION

The dog is a frequently-used, non-rodent species in the safety assessment of new chemical entities. We have a scientific and ethical obligation to ensure that the best quality of data is achieved from their use. Oral gavage is a technique frequently used to deliver a compound directly into the stomach. As with other animals, in the dog, gavage is aversive and the frequency of its use is a cause for welfare concern but little research has been published on the technique nor how to Refine it. A Welfare Assessment Framework (Hall, 2014) was previously developed for use with the laboratory-housed dog and a contrasting pattern of behaviour, cardiovascular and affective measures were found in dogs with positive and negative welfare.

METHODS

Using the framework, this study compared the effects of sham dosing (used to attempt to habituate dogs to dosing) and a Refined training protocol against a control, no-training group to determine the benefit to welfare and scientific output of each technique.

RESULTS

Our findings show that sham dosing is ineffective as a habituation technique and 'primes' rather than desensitises dogs to dosing. Dogs in the control group showed few changes in parameters across the duration of the study, with some undesirable changes during dosing, while dogs in the Refined treatment group showed improvements in many parameters.

DISCUSSION

It is recommended that if there is no time allocated for pre-study training a no-sham dosing protocol is used. However, brief training periods show a considerable benefit for welfare and quality of data to be obtained from the dogs' use.

Permutation Tests in the Educational and Behavioral Sciences

Over the past two decades, permutation tests (PTs) have received much attention in the educational and behavioral sciences. The aim of this article is to review the theoretical developments of PTs, the active areas in the educational and behavioral research using PTs, and the types of analysis under which PTs have been applied. We obtained 224 published articles, which included 141 theoretical articles and 83 application articles. After scrutinizing each article, we are happy to see that (1) some researchers began to advocate introducing PTs into basic statistics training; (2) computing load for PTs may be reduced dramatically by some intelligent algorithms; (3) PTs began to be applied in new areas such as studies on the relationship between brain and behavior and the relationship between gene and behavior; (4) besides simple types of analysis such as independent two-group comparison, PTs can also be carried out under more complex situations such as multivariate analysis. However, we should also notice that PTs are still mostly used for simple analyses (e.g., randomness analysis).

Effect of gentle stroking and vocalization on behaviour, mucosal immunity and upper respiratory disease in anxious shelter cats

Emotional, behavioural, and health benefits of gentle stroking and vocalizations, otherwise known as gentling, have been documented for several species, but little is known about the effect of gentling on cats in stressful situations. In this study, 139 cats rated as anxious upon admission to an animal shelter were allocated to either a Gentled or Control group. Cats were gentled four times daily for 10 min over a period of 10 days, with the aid of a tool for cats that were too aggressive to handle. The cats' mood, or persistent emotional state, was rated daily for 10 d as Anxious, Frustrated or Content. Gentled cats were less likely to have negatively valenced moods (Anxious or Frustrated) than Control cats (Incidence Rate Ratio [IRR]=0.61 CI 0.42-0.88, P=0.007). Total secretory immunoglobulin A (S-IgA) was quantified from faeces by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Gentled cats had increased S-IgA (6.9 ± 0.7 logeμg/g) compared to Control cats (5.9 ± 0.5 logeμg/g) (P<0.0001). Within the Gentled group of cats, S-IgA values were higher for cats that responded positively to gentling (7.03 ± 0.6, logeμg/g), compared with those that responded negatively (6.14 ± 0.8, logeμg/g). Combined conjunctival and oropharyngeal swab specimens were tested by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (rPCR) for feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1), feline calicivirus (FCV), Mycoplasma felis, Chlamydophila felis, and Bordetella bronchiseptica. There was a significant increase in shedding over time in Control cats (23%, 35%, 52% on days 1, 4 and 10, respectively), but not in gentled cats (32%, 26%, 30% on days 1, 4 and 10, respectively) (P=0.001). Onset of upper respiratory disease was determined by veterinary staff based on clinical signs, in particular ocular and/or nasal discharge. Control cats were 2.4 (CI: 1.35-4.15) times more likely to develop upper respiratory disease over time than gentled cats (P<0.0001). It is concluded that gentling anxious cats in animal shelters can induce positive affect (contentment), increase production of S-IgA, and reduce the incidence of upper respiratory disease.

Effects of space allowance on the behaviour of long-term housed shelter dogs

The aim of this study was to assess the effects of space allowance (4.5 m(2)/head vs. 9 m(2)/head) on the behaviour of shelter dogs (Canis familiaris) at different times of the day (from 10:30 to 13:30 vs. from 14:30 to 17:30), and the dogs' preference between two types of beds (fabric bed vs. plastic basket). Twelve neutered dogs (seven males and five females aged 3-8 years) housed in pairs were observed using a scan sampling recording method every 20 s for a total of 14,592 scans/treatment. An increase in space allowance increased general level of activity (risk ratio (RR)=1.34), standing (RR=1.37), positive social interactions (RR=2.14), visual exploration of the environment (RR=1.21), and vocalisations (RR=2.35). Dogs spent more time in the sitting (RR=1.39) or standing (RR=1.88) posture, in positive interactions (RR=1.85), and active visual exploration (RR=1.99) during the morning than in the afternoon. The dogs were more often observed in the fabric bed than in the plastic basket (53% vs. 15% of total scans, p<0.001). Results suggest that a 9.0 m(2)/head space allowance could be more beneficial to dogs than one of 4.5 m(2).

Human interaction moderates plasma cortisol and behavioral responses of dogs to shelter housing

Housing in an animal shelter is a stressful experience for dogs. This study examined the effects of different forms of human interaction on concentrations of circulating cortisol and stress-related behaviors of dogs within 40 h of admittance to a county animal shelter. Blood samples were collected before and after 30-min sessions in a secluded area in which dogs received one of three forms of human interaction: exposure to a passive human, petting, or play. Controls were either exposed to the secluded area alone, or remained in the general housing area. There was a substantial and near uniform reduction in plasma cortisol concentrations from pretest to post-test in all three conditions receiving human interaction, but not in control conditions. Human interaction also reduced behavioral signs of excitation/social solicitation (vocalizing) and fear (panting). Finally, pretest cortisol levels were found to predict levels of panting and another fear-related behavior (tongue protrusions) that dogs exhibited during subsequent testing. The findings suggest practical means of reducing stress, and potentially of improving the welfare, of dogs in shelters.