Assessing inactivity in zoo gorillas using keeper ratings and behavioral data

Keeper effect: Animals are more active in the presence of their caretakers

Zookeepers are the primary caretakers of animals, providing daily care through frequent and close interactions. From the animal's perspective, most of these daily interactions are likely to have positive outcomes. With consistent and reliable interactions, a human-animal relationship is expected to develop. Our aim of this study was to investigate if the presence of the primary keeper in the public viewing area of zoo exhibits impacts the behavior of animals. We observed the behavior of 15 individuals of six species in the presence and absence of their primary keeper. Overall, we observed animals being more active in their keeper's presence than when the keeper was not present. When we considered if the keeper was nearby around times of offered opportunities to animals (e.g., feeding, enrichment, and training), our results showed that animals were equally as active when the keeper was present before an opportunity and when no opportunity was offered. These equal activity levels imply that the keeper is a cue for a forthcoming event to the animals, which reflects anticipatory behavior. Overall, we demonstrate that keeper presence is an environmental context in which animals behave differently than in keeper absence.

Comparison of animal welfare assessment tools and methodologies: need for an effective approach for captive elephants in Asia

Welfare is a fundamental aspect of animal management and conservation. In light of growing public awareness and welfare concerns about captive elephants, there is an urgent need for comprehensive, globally coordinated efforts for Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) that participate in religious, logging, or tourist activities in range countries where the majority reside, and where welfare issues have been identified but not addressed. This review provides a comparative analysis of available animal assessment tools. Each offers distinct features for assessment that allow institutions to select criteria for specific needs and available resources. Most are applied to general animal welfare assessments, although some are tailored to particular species, including elephants. The tools span diverse formats, from digital to primarily paper-based assessments. Assessments operate at individual and institutional levels and across multiple welfare domains. Methodologies rely on keeper ratings or expert evaluations, incorporate numerical scoring and Likert scales for welfare grading, and encompass inputs including behaviors, health, and physiological indicators. For tourist camp elephants, one challenge is that the tools were developed in zoos, which may or may not have application to non-zoological settings. Digital tools and assessment methodologies such as keeper ratings face logistical challenges when applied across tourist venues. As with any tool, reliability, validity, and repeatability are essential and must address the unique welfare challenges of diverse captive settings. We propose that a holistic, context-specific, evidence-based, and practical tool be developed to ensure high elephant welfare standards in non-zoological facilities throughout Asia.

Reliability of caretakers' ratings of captive bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) and finless porpoises' (Neophocaena asiaeorientalis sp.) behavioral style for welfare monitoring

Qualitative ratings are increasingly used to assess animal welfare. We investigated the associations between daily caretakers' ratings of individuals' behavioral style, behavior during free time, participation during training sessions, and environmental variables in captive Yangtze finless porpoises, East-Asian finless porpoises, and bottlenose dolphins. Associations between caretakers' ratings and behavior were found, including social swimming, fast swimming, play, interaction with humans, and agonistic and socio-sexual interactions. Ratings were also associated with participation during training sessions and food intake. Social separation, transport to a new pool, high visitors' density, and holding of a sick conspecific were associated with ratings indicating a deteriorated human-animal relationship, a lower interest/fear of the environment, and/or a higher social cohesion depending on the group. Through principal component analyses, new variables that represented both caretakers' ratings and behavior and that could be used for an easier interpretation of the data for welfare monitoring within each group were extracted. Caretaker ratings and behavior should be used as a complement to previously validated indicators to detect changes in welfare state and understand the potential causes of these changes.

Factors affecting the behavior of captive white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) and the accuracy of ad-hoc keeper data

Although white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) are common in captivity, few behavioral studies have been conducted and there is seemingly no research for immersive exhibits where potential for visitor effects is high. Moreover, little information exists on possible effects of weather and temperature on rhino outside their native range. Here we analyze 14,501 observations of rhino in a drive-through enclosure. Data were collected by researchers (n = 12,160 datapoints) and keepers (n = 2341 datapoints) over a 4-month period. We aimed to: (1) quantify behavior using detailed researcher-collected data and contemporaneous but ad hoc keeper-collected data; (2) compare datasets statistically; (3) establish effects of visitors, temperature, and weather on behavior; and (4) assess the influence of visitors on similarity of researcher/keeper datasets. Activity budgets were similar to the wild and the single previous study from a traditional (nondrive-through) enclosure. There was some discrepancy in activity budgets between researcher and keeper data due to significant differences in recorded frequency of two rare behaviors (horn rub; social interaction) and two behaviors that could be easily confused (grazing vs. standing with head-down): recording of other behaviors matched well. Weather and temperature affected behavior, with rhino becoming more sedentary (-locomotion, grazing; +resting, standing, and sedentary eating of hay) on hot/sunny days compared to cool/wet days. The number of visitor vehicles had a fairly negligible effect but resting was lower on busy days, possibly as vigilance increased. The match between researcher/keeper datasets was lowest when visitor numbers were high, suggesting visitors might affect keeper ability to accurately record behavior.

Urinary oxytocin and cortisol concentrations vary by group type in male western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in North American zoos

Evaluating how primates in human care function within their social environment is important for understanding and optimizing their management and welfare. The neuroendocrine hormone oxytocin is associated with affiliation and bonding, suggesting it can be used to evaluate the affiliative nature of social groupings. When paired with cortisol concentrations, social stressors can simultaneously be assessed, providing a more complete picture of primate social environments than if measuring either hormone independently. Here, we measured both oxytocin and cortisol in urine within a large subset of male western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla; n = 71) living in North American zoos. Both endocrine measures were compared between social group types, with an emphasis on comparing bachelor and mixed-sex groupings to understand how these broad management practices affect male gorillas in zoos. Oxytocin concentrations were greater in bachelor group males than mixed-sex group males and singly housed males, providing physiological evidence that males in bachelor groups form comparatively stronger affiliative relationships than males in other group types. Cortisol concentrations did not differ between bachelor and mixed-sex group males and males in both group types had lower cortisol concentrations than singly housed males. These results indicate that males are similarly capable of coping with group-specific social stressors, and single management may expose males to additional stressors for which further study is needed. These data contribute to a larger body of research highlighting the value of bachelor groups from both a population management and individual welfare perspective.

Distinguishing mobility and immobility when establishing species-specific activity budgets: A case study with gorillas (Gorilla berengei berengei and Gorilla gorilla gorilla)

Activity budgets characterize the distribution of behavior over a specified time period. In some cases, having comparable data from free-ranging populations can help inform the management of wildlife in zoos and sanctuaries. For example, although variations exist across subspecies, seasons, and study sites, diurnal activity budgets for free-ranging gorillas largely consist of feeding and resting. Unfortunately, most studies do not consistently differentiate between the type of activities gorillas exhibit while locomoting versus stationary. Therefore, it can be difficult to characterize optimal levels of aerobic activity that might enhance body condition or promote gorilla health in zoos and sanctuaries. In this study, we concurrently measured the mobility state and activity of mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) in Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda. From June to August 2015, behavioral data were collected using group scan sampling with 15-min intervals in two groups (N = 29 gorillas) monitored by the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International. Overall, gorillas spent significantly more time immobile (85.2% of observations) than mobile (14.8%), revealing energy expenditure levels comparable to western lowland gorillas living in zoos. There was no difference in behavioral diversity when gorillas were mobile versus immobile but adult females exhibited substantially less behavioral diversity while immobile than other age-sex classes. There was more diversity in behaviors following the transition from immobile to mobile than vice versa, particularly for adult females. Future studies should concurrently measure mobility state and behavior to improve the precision of activity budget data and serve as a more useful tool for evaluating optimal activity levels for wildlife in human care.

Looking beyond the Shoal: Fish Welfare as an Individual Attribute

Simple Summary

The fish farming industry is characterized by settings where large numbers of fishes are raised together at high stocking densities, effectively obliterating the individual. Given that animal welfare is an individual attribute that refers to how an animal experiences her world, it follows that ensuring good welfare for the different individuals is difficult in fish farms. In this paper we review evidence supporting the notion that fishes are individuals and fish welfare should thus also be considered at the individual level, examine the ways that animal welfare is assessed in fish farms, evaluate these practices in light of individualized terrestrial animal welfare assessment methods, and make recommendations regarding research that could lead to a better understanding of how to provide each individual fish with good welfare in captivity.

Abstract

Welfare is an individual attribute. In general, providing captive nonhuman animals with conditions conducive to good welfare is an idea more easily applied when dealing with few individuals. However, this becomes much harder—if not impossible—under farming conditions that may imply high numbers of animals living in large group sizes. Although this is a problem inherent to intensive animal farming, it is possibly best exemplified in fish farming, for these practices often rely on extremely high numbers. In this paper we review evidence supporting the notion that fishes are individuals and fish welfare should thus also be considered at the individual level, examine the current state of welfare assessment in the aquaculture industry, evaluate these practices in light of individualized terrestrial animal welfare assessment methods, and make recommendations regarding research that could lead to a better understanding of how to provide each individual fish with good welfare in captivity.

Developing a Reliable Welfare Assessment Tool for Captive Hibernatory Bear Species

Animal welfare assessments are essential for the identification of welfare hazards and benchmarking of welfare improvements, though welfare assessments for zoo species are lacking. Bears are commonly housed in zoos but currently no composite welfare assessment tool exists for captive bears. This study describes the development of such a tool for use across hibernating bear species. A draft tool was developed using indicators derived from the literature and a modified Delphi analysis with an international group of bear keepers. A total of 18 bear keepers from 12 zoos were recruited to trial the tool on 24 brown bears and American black bears. The participating keepers assessed their bears three times across a period of nine days. Intraclass correlation coefficients analysis was used to analyse inter-, intra-rater and item reliability. The inter- and intra-rater reliability showed good to excellent levels of agreement (>0.7, p < 0.05). Item reliability was also assessed and showed good to excellent levels of agreement (>0.75, p < 0.05). The resulting bear welfare assessment is an important step in identifying and understanding challenges to bear welfare in captivity.

Zookeepers' Perception of Zoo Canid Welfare and its Effect on Job Satisfaction, Worldwide

Simple Summary

An important part of zookeepers’ work consists of monitoring and assessing zoo animal welfare. In this study, we investigated zookeepers’ perception of the importance and fulfilment of zoo canids’ fundamental freedoms, and how it correlates with their job satisfaction. Our findings suggest that zookeepers perceive zoo canids’ freedoms to be important, but not as much guaranteed, especially those related to psychological aspects of welfare. However, zookeepers’ female gender is associated with a more positive perception of both the importance and fulfilment of these freedoms. Overall, zookeepers who reported a more positive perception of the fulfilment of zoo canids’ freedoms, as well as a stronger keeper–animal bond, appeared to be more satisfied with their job, in general. Our findings suggest that zoos should put more efforts in ensuring their canids the protection of fundamental freedoms, especially those related to psychological aspects of welfare. Furthermore, enhancing zoo canid welfare, as well as promoting management procedures that allow the development of proper keeper–canid interactions, may increase job satisfaction among zookeepers.

Abstract

Recently, zookeepers’ role in monitoring and assessing zoo animal welfare is gaining importance. One hundred-sixteen zoo canid keepers responded to an online questionnaire aimed at assessing, on a 1 to 5 scoring scale, their perception of the importance and fulfilment of the Brambell’s Freedoms for zoo canids, the bond with canids under their care, and their level of job satisfaction. Results showed that zookeepers perceive the Brambell’s Freedoms as highly important (median = 5, min–max = 3–5), but not equally guaranteed (median = 3, min–max = 1–5, p < 0.01). Although there was no difference in their perception of the importance of each freedom, those related to psychological issues (median = 3, min–max = 1–5) were perceived as significantly less guaranteed than those addressing physical needs (median = 4.5, min–max = 1–5, Mann–Whitney U test, p < 0.01). Female zookeepers tended to perceive all freedoms as more important (Ordinal Logistic Regression model, p = 0.009), as well as more guaranteed (Ordinal Logistic Regression model, p = 0.007), than male zookeepers. Regardless of gender, a more positive perception of the Brambell’s Freedoms for zoo canids was associated with higher job satisfaction (Mann–Whitney U test, p < 0.01, ρ = 0.241). The latter was also positively correlated with zookeepers’ perception of the strength of the bond with the canids under their care (Spearman Rho’s correlation, p = 0.01, ρ = 0.230). Our results highlight the need for zoos to focus on guaranteeing psychological welfare of their canids. Enhancing animal welfare may increase zookeepers’ job satisfaction.

Approaches to studying behavior in captive sloth bears through animal keeper feedback

Animal keepers at zoos and wildlife rescue centers often possess in-depth knowledge of the health and behavior of the individuals under their care. While it is often not feasible for keepers to regularly collect behavior data through formal scientific methods, efforts should be made to find alternative means to capture this knowledge. We investigated the use of keeper feedback to study the behavior of sloth bears at the Agra Bear Rescue Facility (ABRF; Agra, India). We prepared a survey with 5 questions focused on behaviors indicative of playfulness, boldness, aggressiveness, and the tendency to express self-directed behaviors (SDB). We asked keepers to rate bears on a Likert scale from 1 (least likely to exhibit a behavior) to 5 (most likely) for 44 adult female bears (5-21 years of age). We validated this method by comparing keeper ratings of SDB with formal behavior observations, finding that time of day had an influence on the accuracy of keeper assessments. We found a significant negative correlation between housing bears in larger groups (>15) and SDB. In addition, we correlated ratings given by keepers for all study behaviors. Social play had significant negative correlation with aggression toward people. There was no correlation between social play and aggression toward other bears, possibly due to the existence of cohesive social groups in group housing or high dimensionality of the data. We found that keeper feedback is an efficient tool to gather behavior data on captive sloth bears and recommend its use in future studies.

Characterizing abnormal behavior in a large population of zoo-housed chimpanzees: prevalence and potential influencing factors

Abnormal behaviors in captive animals are generally defined as behaviors that are atypical for the species and are often considered to be indicators of poor welfare. Although some abnormal behaviors have been empirically linked to conditions related to elevated stress and compromised welfare in primates, others have little or no evidence on which to base such a relationship. The objective of this study was to investigate a recent claim that abnormal behavior is endemic in the captive population by surveying a broad sample of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), while also considering factors associated with the origins of these behaviors. We surveyed animal care staff from 26 accredited zoos to assess the prevalence of abnormal behavior in a large sample of chimpanzees in the United States for which we had information on origin and rearing history. Our results demonstrated that 64% of this sample was reported to engage in some form of abnormal behavior in the past two years and 48% of chimpanzees engaged in abnormal behavior other than coprophagy. Logistic regression models were used to analyze the historical variables that best predicted the occurrence of all abnormal behavior, any abnormal behavior that was not coprophagy, and coprophagy. Rearing had opposing effects on the occurrence of coprophagy and the other abnormal behaviors such that mother-reared individuals were more likely to perform coprophagy, whereas non-mother-reared individuals were more likely to perform other abnormal behaviors. These results support the assertion that coprophagy may be classified separately when assessing abnormal behavior and the welfare of captive chimpanzees. This robust evaluation of the prevalence of abnormal behavior in our sample from the U.S. zoo population also demonstrates the importance of considering the contribution of historical variables to present behavior, in order to better understand the causes of these behaviors and any potential relationship to psychological wellbeing.

Behavioral research as physical enrichment for captive chimpanzees

In this study, we evaluated the potential for a behavioral research study, designed to evaluate chimpanzee decision-making behavior, to also encourage increased activity in a group of zoo-housed chimpanzees. For the behavioral study, the chimpanzees had to carry tokens to different locations such that they always had to travel farther to obtain a more-preferred reward. We recorded the distance travelled by each subject in each of the three phases of the 15-month study. By the final phase, the chimpanzees' rate of travel during test sessions was significantly higher compared to their baseline activity. Importantly, the chimpanzees' increase in locomotion was not dependent on their participation in the study; rate of travel was not correlated with number of tokens exchanged. However, the chimpanzees' activity returned to baseline within 2 hr of the 30-min test sessions. This study emphasizes the role that research can have in providing enrichment, the importance for long-term enrichment plans, and the essential need to evaluate the impact of research on animal participants, just as we evaluate the efficacy of enrichment strategies. Zoo Biol. 35:293-297, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.