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Urban-Chmiel R, Mudroň P, Abramowicz B, Kurek Ł, Stachura R. Lameness in Cattle-Etiopathogenesis, Prevention and Treatment. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:1836. [PMID: 38929454 PMCID: PMC11200875 DOI: 10.3390/ani14121836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2024] [Revised: 06/18/2024] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The aim of this review was to analyse the health problem of lameness in dairy cows by assessing the health and economic losses. This review also presents in detail the etiopathogenesis of lameness in dairy cattle and examples of its treatment and prevention. This work is based on a review of available publications. In selecting articles for the manuscript, the authors focused on issues observed in cattle herds during their clinical work. Lameness in dairy cattle is a serious health and economic problem around the world. Production losses result from reduced milk yield, reduced feed intake, reproductive disorders, treatment costs, and costs associated with early culling. A significant difficulty in the control and treatment of lameness is the multifactorial nature of the disease; causes may be individual or species-specific and may be associated with the environment, nutrition, or the presence of concomitant diseases. An important role is ascribed to infectious agents of both systemic and local infections, which can cause problems with movement in animals. It is also worth noting the long treatment process, which can last up to several months, thus significantly affecting yield and production. Given the high economic losses resulting from lameness in dairy cows, reaching even >40% (depending on the scale of production), there seems to be a need to implement extensive preventive measures to reduce the occurrence of limb infections in animals. The most important effective preventive measures to reduce the occurrence of limb diseases with symptoms of lameness are periodic hoof examinations and correction, nutritional control, and bathing with disinfectants. A clean and dry environment for cows should also be a priority.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata Urban-Chmiel
- Department of Veterinary Prevention and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-033 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Pavol Mudroň
- Clinic of Ruminants, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, Komenského 73, 04181 Košice, Slovakia;
| | - Beata Abramowicz
- Department and Clinic of Animal Internal Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-033 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Łukasz Kurek
- Department and Clinic of Animal Internal Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-033 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Rafał Stachura
- Agromarina Sp Z o.o., Kulczyn-Kolonia 48, 22-235 Hańsk Pierwszy, Poland;
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Myint BB, Onizuka T, Tin P, Aikawa M, Kobayashi I, Zin TT. Development of a real-time cattle lameness detection system using a single side-view camera. Sci Rep 2024; 14:13734. [PMID: 38877097 PMCID: PMC11178932 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-64664-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Recent advancements in machine learning and deep learning have revolutionized various computer vision applications, including object detection, tracking, and classification. This research investigates the application of deep learning for cattle lameness detection in dairy farming. Our study employs image processing techniques and deep learning methods for cattle detection, tracking, and lameness classification. We utilize two powerful object detection algorithms: Mask-RCNN from Detectron2 and the popular YOLOv8. Their performance is compared to identify the most effective approach for this application. Bounding boxes are drawn around detected cattle to assign unique local IDs, enabling individual tracking and isolation throughout the video sequence. Additionally, mask regions generated by the chosen detection algorithm provide valuable data for feature extraction, which is crucial for subsequent lameness classification. The extracted cattle mask region values serve as the basis for feature extraction, capturing relevant information indicative of lameness. These features, combined with the local IDs assigned during tracking, are used to compute a lameness score for each cattle. We explore the efficacy of various established machine learning algorithms, such as Support Vector Machines (SVM), AdaBoost and so on, in analyzing the extracted lameness features. Evaluation of the proposed system was conducted across three key domains: detection, tracking, and lameness classification. Notably, the detection module employing Detectron2 achieved an impressive accuracy of 98.98%. Similarly, the tracking module attained a high accuracy of 99.50%. In lameness classification, AdaBoost emerged as the most effective algorithm, yielding the highest overall average accuracy (77.9%). Other established machine learning algorithms, including Decision Trees (DT), Support Vector Machines (SVM), and Random Forests, also demonstrated promising performance (DT: 75.32%, SVM: 75.20%, Random Forest: 74.9%). The presented approach demonstrates the successful implementation for cattle lameness detection. The proposed system has the potential to revolutionize dairy farm management by enabling early lameness detection and facilitating effective monitoring of cattle health. Our findings contribute valuable insights into the application of advanced computer vision methods for livestock health management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Bo Myint
- Graduate School of Engineering, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, 889-2192, Japan
| | - Tsubasa Onizuka
- Graduate School of Engineering, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, 889-2192, Japan
| | - Pyke Tin
- Graduate School of Engineering, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, 889-2192, Japan
| | - Masaru Aikawa
- Organization for Learning and Student Development, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, 889-2192, Japan
| | - Ikuo Kobayashi
- Sumiyoshi Livestock Science Station, Field Science Center, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, 889-0121, Japan
| | - Thi Thi Zin
- Graduate School of Engineering, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, 889-2192, Japan.
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Feng W, Fan D, Wu H, Yuan W. Cow Behavior Recognition Based on Wearable Nose Rings. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:1187. [PMID: 38672335 PMCID: PMC11047668 DOI: 10.3390/ani14081187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 04/12/2024] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
This study introduces a novel device designed to monitor dairy cow behavior, with a particular focus on feeding, rumination, and other behaviors. This study investigates the association between the cow behaviors and acceleration data collected using a three-axis, nose-mounted accelerometer, as well as the feasibility of improving the behavioral classification accuracy through machine learning. A total of 11 cows were used. We utilized three-axis acceleration sensors that were fixed to the cow's nose, and these devices provided detailed and unique data corresponding to their activity; in particular, a recorder was installed on each nasal device to obtain acceleration data, which were then used to calculate activity levels and changes. In addition, we visually observed the behavior of the cattle. The characteristic acceleration values during feeding, rumination, and other behavior were recorded; there were significant differences in the activity levels and changes between different behaviors. The results indicated that the nose ring device had the potential to accurately differentiate between eating and rumination behaviors, thus providing an effective method for the early detection of health problems and cattle management. The eating, rumination, and other behaviors of cows were classified with high accuracy using the machine learning technique, which can be used to calculate the activity levels and changes in cattle based on the data obtained from the nose-mounted, three-axis accelerometer.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daoerji Fan
- School of Electronic Information Engineering, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot 010021, China; (W.F.); (H.W.); (W.Y.)
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Mushtaq SH, Hussain D, Hifz-ul-Rahman, Naveed-ul-Haque M, Ahmad N, Sardar AA, Chishti GA. Effect of once-a-day milk feeding on behavior and growth performance of pre-weaning calves. Anim Biosci 2024; 37:253-260. [PMID: 37641842 PMCID: PMC10766481 DOI: 10.5713/ab.23.0073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2023] [Revised: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The objectives of the present study were to evaluate the effects of once-a-day milk feeding on growth performance and routine behavior of preweaning dairy calves. METHODS At 22nd day of age, twenty-four Holstein calves were randomly assigned to one of two treatment groups (n = 12/treatment) based on milk feeding frequency (MF): i) 3 L of milk feeding two times a day; ii) 6 L of milk feeding once a day. The milk feeding amount was reduced to half for all calves between 56 and 60 days of age and weaning was done at 60 days of age. To determine the increase in weight and structural measurements, each calf was weighed and measured at 3 weeks of age and then at weaning. The daily behavioral activity of each calf was assessed from the 22nd day of age till weaning (60th day of age) through Nederlandsche Apparatenfabriek (NEDAP) software providing real-time data through a logger fitted on the calf's foot. RESULTS There was no interaction (p≥0.17) between MF and sex of the calves for routine behavioral parameters, body weight and structural measurements. Similarly, there was no effect of MF on routine behavioral parameters, body weight and structural measurements. However, the sex of the calves affected body weight gain in calves. Male calves had 27% greater total body weight and average daily gain than female calves. There was no effect of the sex of the calves on behavioral measurements. Collectively, in the current study, no negative effects of a once-a-day milk feeding regimen were found on routine behavioral and growth parameters of preweaning calves in group housing. CONCLUSION Once-a-day milk feeding can be safely adopted in preweaning calves from 22nd day of age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syed Husnain Mushtaq
- Department of Livestock Production, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Pattoki 55300,
Pakistan
| | - Danish Hussain
- Department of Livestock Production, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Pattoki 55300,
Pakistan
| | - Hifz-ul-Rahman
- Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Pattoki 55300,
Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Naveed-ul-Haque
- Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Pattoki 55300,
Pakistan
| | - Nisar Ahmad
- Department of Livestock Production, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Pattoki 55300,
Pakistan
| | - Ahmad Azeem Sardar
- Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Pattoki 55300,
Pakistan
| | - Ghazanfar Ali Chishti
- Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Pattoki 55300,
Pakistan
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Nielsen SS, Alvarez J, Bicout DJ, Calistri P, Canali E, Drewe JA, Garin‐Bastuji B, Gonzales Rojas JL, Gortázar Schmidt C, Herskin M, Michel V, Miranda Chueca MÁ, Padalino B, Roberts HC, Spoolder H, Stahl K, Velarde A, Viltrop A, De Boyer des Roches A, Jensen MB, Mee J, Green M, Thulke H, Bailly‐Caumette E, Candiani D, Lima E, Van der Stede Y, Winckler C. Welfare of dairy cows. EFSA J 2023; 21:e07993. [PMID: 37200854 PMCID: PMC10186071 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2023.7993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023] Open
Abstract
This Scientific Opinion addresses a European Commission's mandate on the welfare of dairy cows as part of the Farm to Fork strategy. It includes three assessments carried out based on literature reviews and complemented by expert opinion. Assessment 1 describes the most prevalent housing systems for dairy cows in Europe: tie-stalls, cubicle housing, open-bedded systems and systems with access to an outdoor area. Per each system, the scientific opinion describes the distribution in the EU and assesses the main strengths, weaknesses and hazards potentially reducing the welfare of dairy cows. Assessment 2 addresses five welfare consequences as requested in the mandate: locomotory disorders (including lameness), mastitis, restriction of movement and resting problems, inability to perform comfort behaviour and metabolic disorders. Per each welfare consequence, a set of animal-based measures is suggested, a detailed analysis of the prevalence in different housing systems is provided, and subsequently, a comparison of the housing systems is given. Common and specific system-related hazards as well as management-related hazards and respective preventive measures are investigated. Assessment 3 includes an analysis of farm characteristics (e.g. milk yield, herd size) that could be used to classify the level of on-farm welfare. From the available scientific literature, it was not possible to derive relevant associations between available farm data and cow welfare. Therefore, an approach based on expert knowledge elicitation (EKE) was developed. The EKE resulted in the identification of five farm characteristics (more than one cow per cubicle at maximum stocking density, limited space for cows, inappropriate cubicle size, high on-farm mortality and farms with less than 2 months access to pasture). If one or more of these farm characteristics are present, it is recommended to conduct an assessment of cow welfare on the farm in question using animal-based measures for specified welfare consequences.
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Hajnal É, Kovács L, Vakulya G. Dairy Cattle Rumen Bolus Developments with Special Regard to the Applicable Artificial Intelligence (AI) Methods. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:6812. [PMID: 36146158 PMCID: PMC9505622 DOI: 10.3390/s22186812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2022] [Revised: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
It is a well-known worldwide trend to increase the number of animals on dairy farms and to reduce human labor costs. At the same time, there is a growing need to ensure economical animal husbandry and animal welfare. One way to resolve the two conflicting demands is to continuously monitor the animals. In this article, rumen bolus sensor techniques are reviewed, as they can provide lifelong monitoring due to their implementation. The applied sensory modalities are reviewed also using data transmission and data-processing techniques. During the processing of the literature, we have given priority to artificial intelligence methods, the application of which can represent a significant development in this field. Recommendations are also given regarding the applicable hardware and data analysis technologies. Data processing is executed on at least four levels from measurement to integrated analysis. We concluded that significant results can be achieved in this field only if the modern tools of computer science and intelligent data analysis are used at all levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Éva Hajnal
- Alba Regia Technical Faculty, Óbuda University, 1034 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Levente Kovács
- Institute of Animal Sciences, Hungarian University of Agricultural and Life Sciences, 2100 Gödöllő, Hungary
| | - Gergely Vakulya
- Alba Regia Technical Faculty, Óbuda University, 1034 Budapest, Hungary
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Lameness changes the behavior of dairy cows: daily rank order of lying and feeding behavior decreases with increasing number of lameness indicators present in cow locomotion. J Vet Behav 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2022.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Shine P, Murphy MD. Over 20 Years of Machine Learning Applications on Dairy Farms: A Comprehensive Mapping Study. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 22:52. [PMID: 35009593 PMCID: PMC8747441 DOI: 10.3390/s22010052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/19/2021] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Machine learning applications are becoming more ubiquitous in dairy farming decision support applications in areas such as feeding, animal husbandry, healthcare, animal behavior, milking and resource management. Thus, the objective of this mapping study was to collate and assess studies published in journals and conference proceedings between 1999 and 2021, which applied machine learning algorithms to dairy farming-related problems to identify trends in the geographical origins of data, as well as the algorithms, features and evaluation metrics and methods used. This mapping study was carried out in line with PRISMA guidelines, with six pre-defined research questions (RQ) and a broad and unbiased search strategy that explored five databases. In total, 129 publications passed the pre-defined selection criteria, from which relevant data required to answer each RQ were extracted and analyzed. This study found that Europe (43% of studies) produced the largest number of publications (RQ1), while the largest number of articles were published in the Computers and Electronics in Agriculture journal (21%) (RQ2). The largest number of studies addressed problems related to the physiology and health of dairy cows (32%) (RQ3), while the most frequently employed feature data were derived from sensors (48%) (RQ4). The largest number of studies employed tree-based algorithms (54%) (RQ5), while RMSE (56%) (regression) and accuracy (77%) (classification) were the most frequently employed metrics used, and hold-out cross-validation (39%) was the most frequently employed evaluation method (RQ6). Since 2018, there has been more than a sevenfold increase in the number of studies that focused on the physiology and health of dairy cows, compared to almost a threefold increase in the overall number of publications, suggesting an increased focus on this subdomain. In addition, a fivefold increase in the number of publications that employed neural network algorithms was identified since 2018, in comparison to a threefold increase in the use of both tree-based algorithms and statistical regression algorithms, suggesting an increasing utilization of neural network-based algorithms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael D. Murphy
- Department of Process, Energy and Transport Engineering, Munster Technological University, T12 P928 Cork, Ireland;
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Qiao Y, Kong H, Clark C, Lomax S, Su D, Eiffert S, Sukkarieh S. Intelligent Perception-Based Cattle Lameness Detection and Behaviour Recognition: A Review. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11113033. [PMID: 34827766 PMCID: PMC8614286 DOI: 10.3390/ani11113033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Cattle lameness detection as well as behaviour recognition are the two main objectives in the applications of precision livestock farming (PLF). Over the last five years, the development of smart sensors, big data, and artificial intelligence has offered more automatic tools. In this review, we discuss over 100 papers that used automated techniques to detect cattle lameness and to recognise animal behaviours. To assist researchers and policy-makers in promoting various livestock technologies for monitoring cattle welfare and productivity, we conducted a comprehensive investigation of intelligent perception for cattle lameness detection and behaviour analysis in the PLF domain. Based on the literature review, we anticipate that PLF will develop in an objective, autonomous, and real-time direction. Additionally, we suggest that further research should be dedicated to improving the data quality, modeling accuracy, and commercial availability. Abstract The growing world population has increased the demand for animal-sourced protein. However, animal farming productivity is faced with challenges from traditional farming practices, socioeconomic status, and climate change. In recent years, smart sensors, big data, and deep learning have been applied to animal welfare measurement and livestock farming applications, including behaviour recognition and health monitoring. In order to facilitate research in this area, this review summarises and analyses some main techniques used in smart livestock farming, focusing on those related to cattle lameness detection and behaviour recognition. In this study, more than 100 relevant papers on cattle lameness detection and behaviour recognition have been evaluated and discussed. Based on a review and a comparison of recent technologies and methods, we anticipate that intelligent perception for cattle behaviour and welfare monitoring will develop towards standardisation, a larger scale, and intelligence, combined with Internet of things (IoT) and deep learning technologies. In addition, the key challenges and opportunities of future research are also highlighted and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongliang Qiao
- Australian Centre for Field Robotics (ACFR), Faculty of Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; (H.K.); (S.E.); (S.S.)
- Correspondence:
| | - He Kong
- Australian Centre for Field Robotics (ACFR), Faculty of Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; (H.K.); (S.E.); (S.S.)
| | - Cameron Clark
- Livestock Production and Welfare Group, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; (C.C.); (S.L.)
| | - Sabrina Lomax
- Livestock Production and Welfare Group, School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; (C.C.); (S.L.)
| | - Daobilige Su
- College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China;
| | - Stuart Eiffert
- Australian Centre for Field Robotics (ACFR), Faculty of Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; (H.K.); (S.E.); (S.S.)
| | - Salah Sukkarieh
- Australian Centre for Field Robotics (ACFR), Faculty of Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; (H.K.); (S.E.); (S.S.)
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Shepley E, Vasseur E. The effect of housing tiestall dairy cows in deep-bedded pens during an 8-week dry period on gait and step activity. JDS COMMUNICATIONS 2021; 2:266-270. [PMID: 36338382 PMCID: PMC9623773 DOI: 10.3168/jdsc.2021-0091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Housing dry cows in loose pens versus tiestalls did not increase step activity. Joint flexion improved for dry cows housed in loose pens and worsened for dry cows housed in tiestalls. Cows with higher step activity had better gait regardless of housing system.
Increasing locomotor activity can improve leg health and decrease the prevalence of lameness in dairy cows. The dry period offers an opportunity to provide alternative housing to tiestall (TSL) cows that can increase locomotor activity. The objective was to determine whether housing TSL dairy cows in a deep-bedded loose pen (LP) during the 8-wk dry period affected gait and step activity. Twenty cows, paired by parity and calving date, were assigned at dry-off to a deep-bedded LP or a TSL. Step activity was measured by leg-mounted pedometers. Cows were walked 1×/wk on a test corridor, and video recordings of gait were taken. Six aspects of gait were scored on a 0-to-5 scale (interval: 0.1 unit): tracking up, joint flexion, back arch, asymmetric step, swing, and reluctance to bear weight. Overall gait was also scored using a 1-to-5 scale (interval: 0.5 unit). Data for gait were analyzed based on the change in gait between dry-off and calving. Daily step data were averaged per week of the dry period. Analyses were performed using a mixed model with treatment, term, and block as fixed effects and cow nested within treatment and block as a random effect for step data. The same model, omitting the fixed effect of week, was used for gait variable analyses. There was no difference in step activity between LP and TSL cows (842.1 ± 88.86 vs. 799.5 ± 76.92 steps/d, LP vs. TSL, respectively). Only joint flexion yielded a treatment difference, with LP cows improving over time and TSL cows worsening (−0.4 ± 0.15 vs. 0.2 ± 0.15). Possibly owing to individual variation in motivation to perform locomotor activity, higher levels of step activity, independent of treatment, tended to be correlated with improvements in swinging out, tracking up, joint flexion, and overall gait score. The increased space allotted to LP cows may have allowed for a larger range of motion for each step, and the denser lying surface may have provided a cushioning effect when transitioning between rising and lying, all of which can improve joint health, reflected in improved joint flexion. Further investigation is warranted into the potential benefits of alternative housing on cow comfort, movement opportunity, and cow condition.
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Pfeiffer J, Spykman O, Gandorfer M. Sensor and Video: Two Complementary Approaches for Evaluation of Dairy Cow Behavior after Calving Sensor Attachment. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:1917. [PMID: 34203197 PMCID: PMC8300263 DOI: 10.3390/ani11071917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies evaluating calving sensors provided evidence that attaching the sensor to the tail may lead to changes in the cows' behavior. Two different calving sensors were attached to 18 cows, all of which were equipped with a rumen bolus to record their activity. Two methodological approaches were applied to detect potential behavioral changes: analysis of homogeneity of variance in cow activity (5 days pre-sensor and 24 h post-sensor) and analysis of video-recorded behavior (12 h pre- and post-sensor, respectively) in a subgroup. The average results across the sample showed no significant changes in the variability of activity and no statistically significant mean differences in most visually analyzed behaviors, namely walking, eating, drinking, social interaction, tail raising, rubbing the tail, and the number of standing and lying bouts after calving sensor attachment. In addition to considering mean values across all cows, individual cow investigations revealed an increased number of time slots showing a significant increase in the variability of activity and an increased frequency of tail raising and rubbing the tail on objects after calving sensor attachment in some cows, which should be investigated in more detail on a larger scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Pfeiffer
- Bavarian State Research Center for Agriculture, Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Animal Husbandry, 94099 Ruhstorf an der Rott, Germany; (O.S.); (M.G.)
- TUM School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Olivia Spykman
- Bavarian State Research Center for Agriculture, Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Animal Husbandry, 94099 Ruhstorf an der Rott, Germany; (O.S.); (M.G.)
- TUM School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, 85354 Freising, Germany
| | - Markus Gandorfer
- Bavarian State Research Center for Agriculture, Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Animal Husbandry, 94099 Ruhstorf an der Rott, Germany; (O.S.); (M.G.)
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The Importance of Low Daily Risk for the Prediction of Treatment Events of Individual Dairy Cows with Sensor Systems. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21041389. [PMID: 33671216 PMCID: PMC7922278 DOI: 10.3390/s21041389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The prediction of health disorders is the goal of many sensor systems in dairy farming. Although mastitis and lameness are the most common health disorders in dairy cows, these diseases or treatments are a rare event related to a single day and cow. A number of studies already developed and evaluated models for classifying cows in need of treatment for mastitis and lameness with machine learning methods, but few have illustrated the effects of the positive predictive value (PPV) on practical application. The objective of this study was to investigate the importance of low-frequency treatments of mastitis or lameness for the applicability of these classification models in practice. Data from three German dairy farms contained animal individual sensor data (milkings, activity, feed intake) and were classified using machine learning models developed in a previous study. Subsequently, different risk criteria (previous treatments, information from milk recording, early lactation) were designed to isolate high-risk groups. Restricting selection to cows with previous mastitis or hoof treatment achieved the highest increase in PPV from 0.07 to 0.20 and 0.15, respectively. However, the known low daily risk of a treatment per cow remains the critical factor that prevents the reduction of daily false-positive alarms to a satisfactory level. Sensor systems should be seen as additional decision-support aid to the farmers’ expert knowledge.
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Borghart GM, O'Grady LE, Somers JR. Prediction of lameness using automatically recorded activity, behavior and production data in post-parturient Irish dairy cows. Ir Vet J 2021; 74:4. [PMID: 33549140 PMCID: PMC7868012 DOI: 10.1186/s13620-021-00182-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although visual locomotion scoring is inexpensive and simplistic, it is also time consuming and subjective. Automated lameness detection methods have been developed to replace the visual locomotion scoring and aid in early and accurate detection. Several types of sensors are measuring traits such as activity, lying behavior or temperature. Previous studies on automatic lameness detection have been unable to achieve high accuracy in combination with practical implementation in a on farm commercial setting. The objective of our research was to develop a prediction model for lameness in dairy cattle using a combination of remote sensor technology and other animal records that will translate sensor data into easy to interpret classified locomotion information for the farmer. During an 11-month period, data from 164 Holstein-Friesian dairy cows were gathered, housed at an Irish research farm. A neck-mounted accelerometer was used to gather behavioral metrics, additional automatically recorded data consisted of milk production and live weight. Locomotion scoring data were manually recorded, using a one-to-five scale (1 = non-lame, 5 = severely lame). Locomotion scores where then used to label the cows as sound (locomotion score 1) or unsound (locomotion score ≥ 2). Four supervised classification models, using a gradient boosted decision tree machine learning algorithm, were constructed to investigate whether cows could be classified as sound or unsound. Data available for model building included behavioral metrics, milk production and animal characteristics. RESULTS The resulting models were constructed using various combinations of the data sources. The accuracy of the models was then compared using confusion matrices, receiver-operator characteristic curves and calibration plots. The model which achieved the highest performance according to the accuracy measures, was the model combining all the available data, resulting in an area under the curve of 85% and a sensitivity and specificity of 78%. CONCLUSION These results show that 85% of this model's predictions were correct in identifying cows as sound or unsound, showing that the use of a neck-mounted accelerometer, in combination with production and other animal data, has potential to replace visual locomotion scoring as lameness detection method in dairy cows.
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Kang X, Zhang XD, Liu G. A Review: Development of Computer Vision-Based Lameness Detection for Dairy Cows and Discussion of the Practical Applications. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21030753. [PMID: 33499381 PMCID: PMC7866151 DOI: 10.3390/s21030753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The computer vision technique has been rapidly adopted in cow lameness detection research due to its noncontact characteristic and moderate price. This paper attempted to summarize the research progress of computer vision in the detection of lameness. Computer vision lameness detection systems are not popular on farms, and the accuracy and applicability still need to be improved. This paper discusses the problems and development prospects of this technique from three aspects: detection methods, verification methods and application implementation. The paper aims to provide the reader with a summary of the literature and the latest advances in the field of computer vision detection of lameness in dairy cows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi Kang
- Key Lab of Modern Precision Agriculture System Integration Research, Ministry of Education of China, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; (X.K.); (X.D.Z.)
- Key Lab of Agricultural Information Acquisition Technology, Ministry of Agricultural of China, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Xu Dong Zhang
- Key Lab of Modern Precision Agriculture System Integration Research, Ministry of Education of China, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; (X.K.); (X.D.Z.)
- Key Lab of Agricultural Information Acquisition Technology, Ministry of Agricultural of China, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Gang Liu
- Key Lab of Modern Precision Agriculture System Integration Research, Ministry of Education of China, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China; (X.K.); (X.D.Z.)
- Key Lab of Agricultural Information Acquisition Technology, Ministry of Agricultural of China, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-010-62736741
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15
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Chopra K, Hodges HR, Barker ZE, Vázquez Diosdado JA, Amory JR, Cameron TC, Croft DP, Bell NJ, Codling EA. Proximity Interactions in a Permanently Housed Dairy Herd: Network Structure, Consistency, and Individual Differences. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:583715. [PMID: 33365334 PMCID: PMC7750390 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.583715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the herd structure of housed dairy cows has the potential to reveal preferential interactions, detect changes in behavior indicative of illness, and optimize farm management regimes. This study investigated the structure and consistency of the proximity interaction network of a permanently housed commercial dairy herd throughout October 2014, using data collected from a wireless local positioning system. Herd-level networks were determined from sustained proximity interactions (pairs of cows continuously within three meters for 60 s or longer), and assessed for social differentiation, temporal stability, and the influence of individual-level characteristics such as lameness, parity, and days in milk. We determined the level of inter-individual variation in proximity interactions across the full barn housing, and for specific functional zones within it (feeding, non-feeding). The observed networks were highly connected and temporally varied, with significant preferential assortment, and inter-individual variation in daily interactions in the non-feeding zone. We found no clear social assortment by lameness, parity, or days in milk. Our study demonstrates the potential benefits of automated tracking technology to monitor the proximity interactions of individual animals within large, commercially relevant groups of livestock.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kareemah Chopra
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, United Kingdom
| | | | - Zoe E Barker
- Writtle University College, Chelmsford, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Tom C Cameron
- School of Life Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, United Kingdom
| | - Darren P Croft
- Centre for Research in Animal Behaviour, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Nick J Bell
- Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Edward A Codling
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, United Kingdom
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16
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The influence of maternal contact on activity, emotionality and social competence in young dairy calves. J DAIRY RES 2020; 87:138-143. [DOI: 10.1017/s0022029920000527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
AbstractThe study reported in this research communication aimed to assess the influence of maternal contact on calves' activity, fearfulness, and social competence. Calves were either dam-reared for their first 14 d of age (Maternal Contact, n = 12) or were separated from their dams within 12 h after birth (Motherless, n = 12). Calves of both treatments and the dams of Maternal Contact calves were group-housed and suckling was prevented with udder nets. The general activity (lying, locomotion, swapping between lying and standing) was measured using pedometers in eight Maternal Contact and eight Motherless calves within a 24-d period. Since general activity might be affected by calves' age or the separation of Maternal Contact calves from the dams the 24-d period was additionally divided into two groups (period A: 3rd–13th day of age, period B: 14th–27th day of age). Emotionality and social competence were assessed in the open field, novel object, and confrontation test with an unknown cow at 14, 21, and 28 d of age, respectively. Mann–Whitney-U-tests were performed for statistical analysis. Locomotion was greater in Motherless calves than Maternal Contact calves during the 24-d period (A + B combined, P < 0.001) and period B (14th to 27th day of age, P < 0.001). There was no treatment difference in duration of lying or in the amount of swapping in any of the periods. After a Bonferroni correction, which we used due to the exploratory character of the study, there were no treatment differences in behaviours indicating emotionality. Compared to Motherless calves, Maternal Contact calves showed increased vigilance (P < 0.01) during the confrontation test. The results of this study indicate that mother-reared calves likely searched less for social contact and developed greater social skills than calves that were separated from their mothers soon after birth.
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17
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Using Sensor Data to Detect Lameness and Mastitis Treatment Events in Dairy Cows: A Comparison of Classification Models. SENSORS 2020; 20:s20143863. [PMID: 32664417 PMCID: PMC7411665 DOI: 10.3390/s20143863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to develop classification models for mastitis and lameness treatments in Holstein dairy cows as the target variables based on continuous data from herd management software with modern machine learning methods. Data was collected over a period of 40 months from a total of 167 different cows with daily individual sensor information containing milking parameters, pedometer activity, feed and water intake, and body weight (in the form of differently aggregated data) as well as the entered treatment data. To identify the most important predictors for mastitis and lameness treatments, respectively, Random Forest feature importance, Pearson’s correlation and sequential forward feature selection were applied. With the selected predictors, various machine learning models such as Logistic Regression (LR), Support Vector Machine (SVM), K-nearest neighbors (KNN), Gaussian Naïve Bayes (GNB), Extra Trees Classifier (ET) and different ensemble methods such as Random Forest (RF) were trained. Their performance was compared using the receiver operator characteristic (ROC) area-under-curve (AUC), as well as sensitivity, block sensitivity and specificity. In addition, sampling methods were compared: Over- and undersampling as compensation for the expected unbalanced training data had a high impact on the ratio of sensitivity and specificity in the classification of the test data, but with regard to AUC, random oversampling and SMOTE (Synthetic Minority Over-sampling) even showed significantly lower values than with non-sampled data. The best model, ET, obtained a mean AUC of 0.79 for mastitis and 0.71 for lameness, respectively, based on testing data from practical conditions and is recommended by us for this type of data, but GNB, LR and RF were only marginally worse, and random oversampling and SMOTE even showed significantly lower values than without sampling. We recommend the use of these models as a benchmark for similar self-learning classification tasks. The classification models presented here retain their interpretability with the ability to present feature importances to the farmer in contrast to the “black box” models of Deep Learning methods.
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18
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O'Leary N, Byrne D, O'Connor A, Shalloo L. Invited review: Cattle lameness detection with accelerometers. J Dairy Sci 2020; 103:3895-3911. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2019-17123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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19
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O'Leary NW, Byrne DT, Garcia P, Werner J, Cabedoche M, Shalloo L. Grazing Cow Behavior's Association with Mild and Moderate Lameness. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:E661. [PMID: 32290424 PMCID: PMC7222740 DOI: 10.3390/ani10040661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2020] [Revised: 04/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Accelerometer-based mobility scoring has focused on cow behaviors such as lying and walking. Accuracy levels as high as 91% have been previously reported. However, there has been limited replication of results. Here, measures previously identified as indicative of mobility, such as lying bouts and walking time, were examined. On a research farm and a commercial farm, 63 grazing cows' behavior was monitored in four trials (16, 16, 16, and 15 cows) using leg-worn accelerometers. Seventeen good mobility (score 0), 23 imperfect mobility (score 1), and 22 mildly impaired mobility (score 2) cows were monitored. Only modest associations with activity, standing, and lying events were found. Thus, behavior monitoring appears to be insufficient to discern mildly and moderately impaired mobility of grazing cows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niall W O'Leary
- Land Management and Systems, Faculty of Agribusiness and Commerce, Lincoln University, Lincoln, 7647 Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Daire T Byrne
- Animal and Grassland Research and Innovation Centre, Teagasc, Moorepark, Fermoy, P61 C997 Cork, Ireland
| | - Pauline Garcia
- Seenovate, MIBI Building 672, Rue du Mas de Verchant, 34000 Montpellier, France
| | - Jessica Werner
- Animal Nutrition and Rangeland Management in the Tropics and Subtropics, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany
| | | | - Laurence Shalloo
- Animal and Grassland Research and Innovation Centre, Teagasc, Moorepark, Fermoy, P61 C997 Cork, Ireland
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20
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A Machine Vision-Based Method for Monitoring Scene-Interactive Behaviors of Dairy Calf. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10020190. [PMID: 31978962 PMCID: PMC7071125 DOI: 10.3390/ani10020190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Revised: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Requirements for dairy products are increasing gradually in emerging economic bodies such as China, so it is critical to monitor and maintain the health and welfare of the increasing population of dairy cattle, especially dairy calves (over 20% mortality). In this study, a new method was built by combining background-subtraction and inter-frame difference methods to monitor the behaviors of dairy calf. By using the new model and motion characteristics of the calf in different areas of the enclosure, the scene-interactive behaviors of entering or leaving the resting area, turning around, and stationary (no movement) were identified automatically with a 93–97% success rate. This newly developed method provides a basis for inventing evaluation tools to monitor calves’ health and welfare on dairy farms. Abstract Requirements for animal and dairy products are increasing gradually in emerging economic bodies. However, it is critical and challenging to maintain the health and welfare of the increasing population of dairy cattle, especially the dairy calf (up to 20% mortality in China). Animal behaviors reflect considerable information and are used to estimate animal health and welfare. In recent years, machine vision-based methods have been applied to monitor animal behaviors worldwide. Collected image or video information containing animal behaviors can be analyzed with computer languages to estimate animal welfare or health indicators. In this proposed study, a new deep learning method (i.e., an integration of background-subtraction and inter-frame difference) was developed for automatically recognizing dairy calf scene-interactive behaviors (e.g., entering or leaving the resting area, and stationary and turning behaviors in the inlet and outlet area of the resting area) based on computer vision-based technology. Results show that the recognition success rates for the calf’s science-interactive behaviors of pen entering, pen leaving, staying (standing or laying static behavior), and turning were 94.38%, 92.86%, 96.85%, and 93.51%, respectively. The recognition success rates for feeding and drinking were 79.69% and 81.73%, respectively. This newly developed method provides a basis for inventing evaluation tools to monitor calves’ health and welfare on dairy farms.
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21
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Individualised automated lameness detection in dairy cows and the impact of historical window length on algorithm performance. Animal 2019; 14:409-417. [PMID: 31354111 DOI: 10.1017/s1751731119001642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Lameness is an important economic problem in the dairy sector, resulting in production loss and reduced welfare of dairy cows. Given the modern-day expansion of dairy herds, a tool to automatically detect lameness in real-time can therefore create added value for the farmer. The challenge in developing camera-based tools is that one system has to work for all the animals on the farm despite each animal having its own individual lameness response. Individualising these systems based on animal-level historical data is a way to achieve accurate monitoring on farm scale. The goal of this study is to optimise a lameness monitoring algorithm based on back posture values derived from a camera for individual cows by tuning the deviation thresholds and the quantity of the historical data being used. Back posture values from a sample of 209 Holstein Friesian cows in a large herd of over 2000 cows were collected during 15 months on a commercial dairy farm in Sweden. A historical data set of back posture values was generated for each cow to calculate an individual healthy reference per cow. For a gold standard reference, manual scoring of lameness based on the Sprecher scale was carried out weekly by a single skilled observer during the final 6 weeks of data collection. Using an individual threshold, deviations from the healthy reference were identified with a specificity of 82.3%, a sensitivity of 79%, an accuracy of 82%, and a precision of 36.1% when the length of the healthy reference window was not limited. When the length of the healthy reference window was varied between 30 and 250 days, it was observed that algorithm performance was maximised with a reference window of 200 days. This paper presents a high-performing lameness detection system and demonstrates the importance of the historical window length for healthy reference calculation in order to ensure the use of meaningful historical data in deviation detection algorithms.
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22
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Alsaaod M, Fadul M, Steiner A. Automatic lameness detection in cattle. Vet J 2019; 246:35-44. [PMID: 30902187 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2019.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Revised: 10/23/2018] [Accepted: 01/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
There is an increasing demand for health and welfare monitoring in modern dairy farming. The development of various innovative techniques aims at improving animal behaviour monitoring and thus animal welfare indicators on-farm. Automated lameness detection systems have to be valid, reliable and practicable to be applied in veterinary practice or under farm conditions. The objective of this literature review was to describe the current automated systems for detection of lameness in cattle, which have been recently developed and investigated for application in dairy research and practice. The automatic methods of lameness detection broadly fall into three categories: kinematic, kinetic and indirect methods. The performance of the methods were compared with the reference standard (locomotion score and/or lesion score) and evaluated based on level-based scheme defining the degree of development (level I, sensor technique; level II, validation of algorithm; level III, performance for detection of lameness and/or lesion; level IV, decision support with early warning system). Many scientific studies have been performed on levels I-III, but there are no studies of level IV technology. The adoption rate of automated lameness detection systems by herd managers mainly yields returns on investment by the early identification of lame cows. Long-term studies, using validated automated lameness detection systems aiming at early lameness detection, are still needed in order to improve welfare and production under field conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maher Alsaaod
- Clinic for Ruminants, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Mahmoud Fadul
- Clinic for Ruminants, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Adrian Steiner
- Clinic for Ruminants, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Bern, Switzerland
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23
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Zillner JC, Tücking N, Plattes S, Heggemann T, Büscher W. Using walking speed for lameness detection in lactating dairy cows. Livest Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.livsci.2018.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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24
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Grodkowski G, Sakowski T, Puppel K, Baars T. Comparison of different applications of automatic herd control systems on dairy farms - a review. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2018; 98:5181-5188. [PMID: 29882303 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.9194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Revised: 05/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Recent years have seen the rapid development of different devices which can be helpful in the daily work of livestock farmers. The growing size of livestock herds has led farmers to lose individual contact with their animals, while behavioral studies show that breeders can effectively and precisely monitor a herd of up to 100 cows. This was the main motivation for this study, which aims to identify and test various electronic devices which provide useful herd management data, including estrus detection, individual activity and body temperature measurement, monitoring rumen pH levels, milk quality and content as well as milk temperature and somatic cell count measurements. Some devices can detect the metabolic status of animals with a reasonable level of precision. Contemporary animal farms are offered a large number of systems for monitoring the behavior of the animals in the herd and helping to identify those that are intended for insemination or are too active or excessively apathetic. Monitoring devices support herd management and help to reduce costs through the early detection of animal diseases and nutritional problems. This review aims to compile and summarize the information currently available on the use of automatic herd control systems on dairy farms, as well as to discuss the interpretation of the results, providing a useful diagnostic tool in nutritional evaluations of dairy herds. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grzegorz Grodkowski
- Department of Animal Science, Institute of Genetics and Animal Breeding, Polish Academy of Science, Jastrzębiec, Poland
- Cattle Breeding Division, Animal Breeding & Production Department, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Tomasz Sakowski
- Department of Animal Science, Institute of Genetics and Animal Breeding, Polish Academy of Science, Jastrzębiec, Poland
| | - Kamila Puppel
- Cattle Breeding Division, Animal Breeding & Production Department, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Ton Baars
- Karlowski Foundation, Juchowo, Poland
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25
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Monitoring foot surface temperature using infrared thermal imaging for assessment of hoof health status in cattle: A review. J Therm Biol 2018; 78:10-21. [PMID: 30509624 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2018.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Revised: 08/19/2018] [Accepted: 08/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Detection of lameness early in cows is important from the animal welfare point of view and for reducing economic losses. Currently, many studies are being conducted for assessment of hoof health status by measuring the surface temperature of skin in cattle and other animal species in different parts of the world. Infrared Thermography (IRT) is able to detect lesions of hooves associated with lameness by measuring the changes in coronary band and hoof skin surface temperature. The surface temperature of a lame limb will be increased when the hoof has lesion(s). IRT has been used as a non-invasive diagnostic tool for early detection of hoof lesions based on the temperature difference between affected and non-affected hoof and maximum foot temperature on the regions of interest. In spite of having many potential applications in cattle production, factors affecting the temperature readings in thermograms must also are considered while taking images. Standard operating procedures must be established before taking thermographs under different circumstances, by considering all the factors that affect its normal function. IRT may help in minimising the cost of veterinary services, low yield, compromised fertility and culling expenses, where lameness cannot be resolved in early stages.
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26
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Schlageter-Tello A, Van Hertem T, Bokkers EA, Viazzi S, Bahr C, Lokhorst K. Performance of human observers and an automatic 3-dimensional computer-vision-based locomotion scoring method to detect lameness and hoof lesions in dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 2018; 101:6322-6335. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2017-13768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2017] [Accepted: 02/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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27
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A Wearable Sensor System for Lameness Detection in Dairy Cattle. MULTIMODAL TECHNOLOGIES AND INTERACTION 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/mti2020027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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28
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Gülden A, Schulze Zurmussen H, Büscher W. The effect of different feeding regimes on horses' blocking and activity behavior at a concentrate feeding station for horses in group housing. J Vet Behav 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2017.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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29
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Weigele H, Gygax L, Steiner A, Wechsler B, Burla JB. Moderate lameness leads to marked behavioral changes in dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 2018; 101:2370-2382. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2017-13120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2017] [Accepted: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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30
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Burnett TA, Madureira AM, Silper BF, Fernandes A, Cerri RL. Integrating an automated activity monitor into an artificial insemination program and the associated risk factors affecting reproductive performance of dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 2017; 100:5005-5018. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2016-12246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Accepted: 02/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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31
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Alsaaod M, Luternauer M, Hausegger T, Kredel R, Steiner A. The cow pedogram-Analysis of gait cycle variables allows the detection of lameness and foot pathologies. J Dairy Sci 2016; 100:1417-1426. [PMID: 27939543 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2016-11678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Changes in gait characteristics are important indicators in assessing the health and welfare of cattle. The aim of this study was to detect unilateral hind limb lameness and foot pathologies in dairy cows using 2 high-frequency accelerometers (400 Hz). The extracted gait cycle variables included temporal events (kinematic outcome = gait cycle, stance phase, and swing phase duration) and several peaks (kinetic outcome = foot load, toe-off). The study consisted of 2 independent experiments. Experiment 1 was carried out to compare the pedogram variables between the lateral claw and respective metatarsus (MT; n = 12) in sound cows (numerical rating system <3, n = 12) and the differences of pedogram variables across limbs within cows between lame cows (numerical rating system ≥3, n = 5) and sound cows (n = 12) using pedogram data that were visually compared with the synchronized cinematographic data. Experiment 2 was carried out to determine the differences across limbs within cows between cows with foot lesions (n = 12) and without foot lesions (n = 12) using only pedogram data. A receiver operator characteristic analysis was used to determine the performance of selected pedogram variables at the cow level. The pedogram of the lateral claw of sound cows revealed similarities of temporal events (gait cycle duration, stance and swing phases) but higher peaks (toe-off and foot load) as compared with the pedogram of the respective MT. In both experiments, comparison of the values between groups showed significantly higher values in lame cows and cows with foot lesions for all gait cycle variables. The optimal cutoff value of the relative stance phase duration for identifying lame cows was 14.79% and for cows with foot lesions was 2.53% with (both 100% sensitivity and 100% specificity) in experiments 1 and 2, respectively. The use of accelerometers with a high sampling rate (400 Hz) at the level of the MT is a promising tool to indirectly measure the kinematic variables of the lateral claw and to detect unilateral hind limb lameness and hind limb pathologies in dairy cows and is highly accurate.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Alsaaod
- Clinic for Ruminants, Vetsuisse-Faculty, Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Bern, 3001 Bern, Switzerland.
| | - M Luternauer
- Clinic for Ruminants, Vetsuisse-Faculty, Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Bern, 3001 Bern, Switzerland
| | - T Hausegger
- Institute of Sport Science, Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Bern, 3001 Bern, Switzerland
| | - R Kredel
- Institute of Sport Science, Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Bern, 3001 Bern, Switzerland
| | - A Steiner
- Clinic for Ruminants, Vetsuisse-Faculty, Faculty of Human Sciences, University of Bern, 3001 Bern, Switzerland
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Swartz TH, McGilliard ML, Petersson-Wolfe CS. Technical note: The use of an accelerometer for measuring step activity and lying behaviors in dairy calves. J Dairy Sci 2016; 99:9109-9113. [PMID: 27614829 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2016-11297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2016] [Accepted: 07/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Calf behaviors such as step activity, lying bouts, and lying time may be an indicator of calf health and welfare. To reduce time-consuming visual observations, the use of behavioral monitoring systems have been developed to capture these data. Previous studies have validated lying behaviors using an accelerometer (HPG; HOBO Pendant G data logger, Onset Computer Corp., Bourne, MA) in calves. However, the HPG does not measure step activity. The objectives of this study were to (1) validate step activity, lying bouts, and lying time of AfiTag II (AT2; AfiTag II, Afimilk Ltd., Kibbutz Afikim, Israel) to observations from video, and (2) to compare the behavioral data from AT2 to the HPG. Calves (n=5) were group housed with an automatic calf feeder. Video cameras were installed at both sides of the pen, and observations were analyzed for 7h/calf. The AT2 and the HPG were both attached to the lateral side of the right rear leg of 5 calves, and data were recorded for 10 d. The full 10-d data set was used to examine correlations for lying bouts and lying time between AT2 and the HPG. The HPG was set at a 60-s sampling interval and the output was analyzed both unfiltered as well as utilizing a 1-min event filter to remove potentially erroneous readings. The AT2 recorded step activity, lying bouts, and lying time, and summarized these behaviors in 15-min periods. The AT2 recorded lying time in 3-min intervals, which were then automatically summarized in 15-min periods. The correlations of step activity, lying bouts, and lying time between video recordings and AT2 were 0.99. For the second objective, correlations between AT2 and the HPG were 0.99 for lying time and 0.93 for lying bouts. The 1-min event filter resulted in a 0.03 improvement in correlations for lying bouts between the HPG and AT2. The high correlation between video recordings and AT2 suggest that this device can be used to measure step activity, lying time, and lying bouts in unweaned dairy calves housed in groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- T H Swartz
- Department of Dairy Science, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg 24061
| | - M L McGilliard
- Department of Dairy Science, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg 24061
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Wolfger B, Mang AV, Cook N, Orsel K, Timsit E. Technical note: Evaluation of a system for monitoring individual feeding behavior and activity in beef cattle. J Anim Sci 2016; 93:4110-4. [PMID: 26440190 DOI: 10.2527/jas.2015-8947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Behavioral observations are important to detect illness in beef cattle. However, traditional observation techniques are time and labor intensive and may be subjective. The objective was to validate a system for monitoring individual feeding behavior and activity in beef cattle (Fedometer [FEDO]; ENGS, Rosh Pina, Israel). Sixteen steers (initial BW ± SD = 326 ± 46 kg) were fitted with data loggers (FEDO) on their left front leg and housed in a pen with a feedbunk equipped with an antenna emitting an electromagnetic field that reached 30 ± 2 cm in front of the feedbunk. Feedbunk attendance (duration of visit and frequency of meals) measured by FEDO was compared with live observations (27 observational periods lasting between 72 and 240 min; mean 126 min). Lying time and frequency of lying bouts were compared with previously validated accelerometers fitted to the hind leg (10 steers equipped for 10 to 12 d; HOBO Pendant G Acceleration Data Logger [HOBO]; Onset Computer Corporation, Pocasset, MA). Step counts were compared with video recordings (15 observations for 6-min intervals in 6 steers). Concordance correlation coefficients (CCC), accounting for repeated measures, and limits of agreement were computed. Comparison between FEDO and observed time at the feedbunk yielded a CCC of 0.98 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.97-0.99). All 68 meal events observed were recorded by FEDO. However, FEDO recorded 4 meal events during the 27 observational periods that were not observed. Lying time measured by HOBO and FEDO were highly correlated (CCC = 0.98; 95% CI 0.97-0.99). However, frequency of lying bouts measured by FEDO was only moderately correlated to HOBO (CCC = 0.71; 95% CI 0.63-0.77); FEDO underestimating the number of lying bouts (on average, 0.4 fewer bouts per 6 h). Step count by FEDO was moderately correlated to video observations (CCC = 0.75; 95% CI 0.49-0.89); FEDO overestimating the number of steps (on average, 5 more steps per 6 min). In conclusion, the FEDO system accurately measured duration of feedbunk attendance, frequency of meals, and lying time. However, it overestimated the number of steps and underestimated the frequency of lying bouts.
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Chen W, White E, Holden NM. The effect of lameness on the environmental performance of milk production by rotational grazing. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2016; 172:143-150. [PMID: 26934643 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.02.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2015] [Revised: 02/16/2016] [Accepted: 02/18/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Dairy production leads to significant environmental impacts and increased production will only be feasible if the environmental performance at farm level permits a sustainable milk supply. Lameness is believed to become more prevalent and severe as herd sizes increase, and can significantly reduce milk output per cow while not influencing other attributes of the production system. The objective of this work was to quantify the effect of lameness on the environmental performance of a typical grazed grass dairy farm and evaluate the theoretical value of sensor-based real-time lameness management. Life cycle assessment was used to compare a typical baseline farm with scenarios assuming increased lameness severity and prevalence. It was found that lameness could increase the farm level global warming potential, acidification potential, eutrophication potential and fossil fuel depletion by 7-9%. As increased herd sizes will increase cow: handler ratio, this result was interpreted to suggest that the use of sensors and information and communication technology for lameness detection could improve management on dairy farms to reduce the adverse impact on environmental performance that is associated with lameness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhao Chen
- UCD School of Biosystems and Food Engineering, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
| | - Eoin White
- UCD School of Biosystems and Food Engineering, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Nicholas M Holden
- UCD School of Biosystems and Food Engineering, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
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Solano L, Barkema HW, Pajor EA, Mason S, LeBlanc SJ, Nash CGR, Haley DB, Pellerin D, Rushen J, de Passillé AM, Vasseur E, Orsel K. Associations between lying behavior and lameness in Canadian Holstein-Friesian cows housed in freestall barns. J Dairy Sci 2016; 99:2086-2101. [PMID: 26805982 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2015-10336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2015] [Accepted: 10/31/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Lying behavior is an important measure of comfort and well-being in dairy cattle, and changes in lying behavior are potential indicators and predictors of lameness. Our objectives were to determine individual and herd-level risk factors associated with measures of lying behavior, and to evaluate whether automated measures of lying behavior can be used to detect lameness. A purposive sample of 40 Holstein cows was selected from each of 141 dairy farms in Alberta, Ontario, and Québec. Lying behavior of 5,135 cows between 10 and 120 d in milk was automatically and continuously recorded using accelerometers over 4 d. Data on factors hypothesized to influence lying behavior were collected, including information on individual cows, management practices, and facility design. Associations between predictor variables and measures of lying behavior were assessed using generalized linear mixed models, including farm and province as random and fixed effects, respectively. Logistic regression models were used to determine whether lying behavior was associated with lameness. At the cow-level, daily lying time increased with increasing days in milk, but this effect interacted with parity; primiparous cows had more frequent but shorter lying bouts in early lactation, changing to mature-cow patterns of lying behavior (fewer and longer lying bouts) in late lactation. In barns with stall curbs >22 cm high, the use of sand or >2 cm of bedding was associated with an increased average daily lying time of 1.44 and 0.06 h/d, respectively. Feed alleys ≥ 350 cm wide or stalls ≥ 114 cm wide were associated with increased daily lying time of 0.39 and 0.33 h/d, respectively, whereas rubber flooring in the feed alley was associated with 0.47 h/d lower average lying time. Lame cows had longer lying times, with fewer, longer, and more variable duration of bouts compared with nonlame cows. In that regard, cows with lying time ≥ 14 h/d, ≤ 5 lying bouts per day, bout duration ≥ 110 min/bout, or standard deviations of bout duration over 4 d ≥ 70 min had 3.7, 1.7, 2.5, and 3.0 higher odds of being lame, respectively. Factors related to comfort of lying and standing surfaces significantly affected lying behavior. Finally, we inferred that automated measures of lying behavior could contribute to lameness detection, especially when interpreted in the context of other factors known to affect lying behavior, including those associated with the individual cow (e.g., parity and stage of lactation) or environment (e.g., stall surface).
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Affiliation(s)
- L Solano
- Department of Production Animal Health, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, T2N 4N1.
| | - H W Barkema
- Department of Production Animal Health, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, T2N 4N1
| | - E A Pajor
- Department of Production Animal Health, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, T2N 4N1
| | - S Mason
- Department of Production Animal Health, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, T2N 4N1
| | - S J LeBlanc
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada, N1G 2W1
| | - C G R Nash
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada, N1G 2W1
| | - D B Haley
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada, N1G 2W1
| | - D Pellerin
- Department of Animal Science, Université Laval, Québec, Québec, Canada, G1V 0A6
| | - J Rushen
- Dairy Education and Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Agassiz, British Columbia, Canada, V0M 1A0
| | - A M de Passillé
- Dairy Education and Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Agassiz, British Columbia, Canada, V0M 1A0
| | - E Vasseur
- MacDonald College, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada, H9X 3V9
| | - K Orsel
- Department of Production Animal Health, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, T2N 4N1
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Automatic detection of lameness in gestating group-housed sows using positioning and acceleration measurements. Animal 2016; 10:970-7. [PMID: 27074864 DOI: 10.1017/s175173111500302x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Lameness is an important issue in group-housed sows. Automatic detection systems are a beneficial diagnostic tool to support management. The aim of the present study was to evaluate data of a positioning system including acceleration measurements to detect lameness in group-housed sows. Data were acquired at the Futterkamp research farm from May 2012 until April 2013. In the gestation unit, 212 group-housed sows were equipped with an ear sensor to sample position and acceleration per sow and second. Three activity indices were calculated per sow and day: path length walked by a sow during the day (Path), number of squares (25×25 cm) visited during the day (Square) and variance of the acceleration measurement during the day (Acc). In addition, data on lameness treatments of the sows and a weekly lameness score were used as reference systems. To determine the influence of a lameness event, all indices were analysed in a linear random regression model. Test day, parity class and day before treatment had a significant influence on all activity indices (P<0.05). In healthy sows, indices Path and Square increased with increasing parity, whereas variance slightly decreased. The indices Path and Square showed a decreasing trend in a 14-day period before a lameness treatment and to a smaller extent before a lameness score of 2 (severe lameness). For the index acceleration, there was no obvious difference between the lame and non-lame periods. In conclusion, positioning and acceleration measurements with ear sensors can be used to describe the activity pattern of sows. However, improvements in sampling rate and analysis techniques should be made for a practical application as an automatic lameness detection system.
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Alsaaod M, Niederhauser J, Beer G, Zehner N, Schuepbach-Regula G, Steiner A. Development and validation of a novel pedometer algorithm to quantify extended characteristics of the locomotor behavior of dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 2015; 98:6236-42. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2015-9657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2015] [Accepted: 05/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Lameness Detection in Dairy Cows: Part 2. Use of Sensors to Automatically Register Changes in Locomotion or Behavior. Animals (Basel) 2015; 5:861-85. [PMID: 26479390 PMCID: PMC4598710 DOI: 10.3390/ani5030388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Revised: 07/03/2015] [Accepted: 07/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary As lame cows produce less milk and tendto have other health problems, finding and treating lame cows is very importantfor farmers. Sensors that measure behaviors associated with lameness in cowscan help by alerting the farmer of those cows in need of treatment. This reviewgives an overview of sensors for automated lameness detection and discussessome practical considerations for investigating and applying such systems inpractice. Abstract Despite the research on opportunities toautomatically measure lameness in cattle, lameness detection systems are notwidely available commercially and are only used on a few dairy farms. However, farmers need to be aware of the lame cows in their herds in order treat themproperly and in a timely fashion. Many papers have focused on the automatedmeasurement of gait or behavioral cow characteristics related to lameness. Inorder for such automated measurements to be used in a detection system, algorithms to distinguish between non-lame and mildly or severely lame cowsneed to be developed and validated. Few studies have reached this latter stageof the development process. Also, comparison between the different approachesis impeded by the wide range of practical settings used to measure the gait or behavioralcharacteristic (e.g., measurements during normal farming routine or duringexperiments; cows guided or walking at their own speed) and by the differentdefinitions of lame cows. In the majority of the publications, mildly lame cowsare included in the non-lame cow group, which limits the possibility of alsodetecting early lameness cases. In this review, studies that used sensortechnology to measure changes in gait or behavior of cows related to lamenessare discussed together with practical considerations when conducting lamenessresearch. In addition, other prerequisites for any lameness detection system onfarms (e.g., need for early detection, real-time measurements) are discussed.
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Alsaaod M, Schaefer AL, Büscher W, Steiner A. The Role of Infrared Thermography as a Non-Invasive Tool for the Detection of Lameness in Cattle. SENSORS 2015; 15:14513-25. [PMID: 26094632 PMCID: PMC4507600 DOI: 10.3390/s150614513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2015] [Revised: 06/11/2015] [Accepted: 06/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The use of infrared thermography for the identification of lameness in cattle has increased in recent years largely because of its non-invasive properties, ease of automation and continued cost reductions. Thermography can be used to identify and determine thermal abnormalities in animals by characterizing an increase or decrease in the surface temperature of their skin. The variation in superficial thermal patterns resulting from changes in blood flow in particular can be used to detect inflammation or injury associated with conditions such as foot lesions. Thermography has been used not only as a diagnostic tool, but also to evaluate routine farm management. Since 2000, 14 peer reviewed papers which discuss the assessment of thermography to identify and manage lameness in cattle have been published. There was a large difference in thermography performance in these reported studies. However, thermography was demonstrated to have utility for the detection of contralateral temperature difference and maximum foot temperature on areas of interest. Also apparent in these publications was that a controlled environment is an important issue that should be considered before image scanning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maher Alsaaod
- Clinic for Ruminants, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern 3001, Switzerland.
| | - Allan L Schaefer
- Agriculture Forestry Centre, Department of AFNS, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2P5, Canada.
| | - Wolfgang Büscher
- Livestock Technology Section, Institute for Agricultural Engineering, University of Bonn, Nussallee 5, Bonn D-53115, Germany.
| | - Adrian Steiner
- Clinic for Ruminants, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern 3001, Switzerland.
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Abstract
Lameness in dairy herds is traditionally detected by visual inspection, which is time-consuming and subjective. Compared with healthy cows, lame cows often spend longer time lying down, walk less and change behaviour around feeding time. Accelerometers measuring cow leg activity may assist farmers in detecting lame cows. On four commercial farms, accelerometer data were derived from hind leg-mounted accelerometers on 348 Holstein cows, 53 of them during two lactations. The cows were milked twice daily and had no access to pasture. During a lactation, locomotion score (LS) was assessed on average 2.4 times (s.d. 1.3). Based on daily lying duration, standing duration, walking duration, total number of steps, step frequency, motion index (MI, i.e. total acceleration) for lying, standing and walking, eight accelerometer means and their corresponding coefficient of variation (CV) were calculated for each week immediately before an LS. A principal component analysis was performed to evaluate the relationship between the variables. The effects of LS and farm on the principal components (PC) and on the variables were analysed in a mixed model. The first four PC accounted for 27%, 18%, 12% and 10% of the total variation, respectively. PC1 corresponded to Activity variability due to heavy loading by five CV variables related to standing and walking. PC2 corresponded to Activity level due to heavy loading by MI walking, MI standing and walking duration. PC3 corresponded to Recumbency due to heavy loading by four variables related to lying. PC4 corresponded mainly to Stepping due to heavy loading by step frequency. Activity variability at LS4 was significantly higher than at the lower LS levels. Activity level was significantly higher at LS1 than at LS2, which was significantly higher than at LS4. Recumbency was unaffected by LS. Stepping at LS1 and LS2 was significantly higher than at LS3 and LS4. Activity level was significantly lower on farm 3 compared with farms 1 and 2. Stepping was significantly lower on farms 1 and 3 compared with farms 2 and 4. MI standing indicated increased restlessness while standing when cows increased from LS3 to LS4. Lying duration was only increased in lame cows. In conclusion, Activity level differed already between LS1 and LS2, thus detecting early signs of lameness, particularly through contributions from walking duration and MI walking. Lameness detection models including walking duration, MI walking and MI standing seem worthy of further investigation.
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Zaborski D, Grzesiak W, Pilarczyk R. Detection of difficult calvings in the Polish Holstein-Friesian Black-and-White heifers. JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/09712119.2014.987293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Manual and automatic locomotion scoring systems in dairy cows: A review. Prev Vet Med 2014; 116:12-25. [DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2014.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2013] [Revised: 05/20/2014] [Accepted: 06/12/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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