African elephants (Loxodonta africana) display remarkable olfactory acuity in human scent matching to sample performance

Do African Savanna Elephants (Loxodonta africana) Show Interspecific Social Long-Term Memory for Their Zoo Keepers?

"An elephant never forgets" is a popular phrase that refers not only to the elephant's extraordinary ability to remember migration routes but also to its pronounced social long-term memory (SLTM). Previous studies have shown intra- and interspecies SLTM performance, but the ability of elephants to have memories of individual humans has not yet been investigated. We tested this interspecific SLTM using auditory, olfactory, and visual stimuli, each from familiar and unfamiliar persons, in two African savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana) cows living in a zoo. The two-choice object tests revealed a higher interest in sensory stimuli from familiar keepers they had not seen for 13 years than in unfamiliar people. Statistically significant differences were found for olfactory stimuli. In addition, there was significantly more interest in visual stimuli from current keepers than in stimuli from unfamiliar people. Contrary to the results of a previous study with elephants, this was not observed for olfactory stimuli. Due to the small sample size and magnitude of the influencing factors, that is, outdoor experiment, only spatial separation of the animals, these results only represent indications of the possible interspecific SLTM. Nevertheless, we were able to provide the first empirical evidence that L. africana stores information about specific people over a long period of time. Further studies with larger sample sizes, cross-modal testing, and people disliked by the elephants could provide more insights.

Do elephants really never forget? What we know about elephant memory and a call for further investigation

Despite popular culture's promotion of the elephant's ability to "never forget," there is remarkably limited empirical research on the memory capacities of any living elephant species (Asian, Elephas maximus; African savanna, Loxodonta africana; African forest, Loxodonta cyclotis). A growing body of literature on elephant cognition and behavioral ecology has provided insight into the elephant's ability to behave flexibly in changing physical and social environments, but little direct evidence of how memory might relate to this flexibility exists. In this paper, we review and discuss the potential relationships between what we know about elephant cognition and behavior and the elephants' memory for the world around them as they navigate their physical, social, and spatial environments. We also discuss future directions for investigating elephant memory and implications for such research on elephant conservation and human-elephant conflict mitigation.

The marula and elephant intoxication myth: assessing the biodiversity of fermenting yeasts associated with marula fruits (Sclerocarya birrea)

The inebriation of wild African elephants from eating the ripened and rotting fruit of the marula tree is a persistent myth in Southern Africa. However, the yeasts responsible for alcoholic fermentation to intoxicate the elephants remain poorly documented. In this study, we considered Botswana, a country with the world's largest population of wild elephants, and where the marula tree is indigenous, abundant and protected, to assess the occurrence and biodiversity of yeasts with a potential to ferment and subsequently inebriate the wild elephants. We collected marula fruits from over a stretch of 800 km in Botswana and isolated 106 yeast strains representing 24 yeast species. Over 93% of these isolates, typically known to ferment simple sugars and produce ethanol comprising of high ethanol producers belonging to Saccharomyces, Brettanomyces, and Pichia, and intermediate ethanol producers Wickerhamomyces, Zygotorulaspora, Candida, Hanseniaspora, and Kluyveromyces. Fermentation of marula juice revealed convincing fermentative and aromatic bouquet credentials to suggest the potential to influence foraging behaviour and inebriate elephants in nature. There is insufficient evidence to refute the aforementioned myth. This work serves as the first work towards understanding the biodiversity marula associated yeasts to debunk the myth or approve the facts.

Long-Term Olfactory Memory in African Elephants

African elephants are capable of discriminating scents up to a single changed molecule and show the largest reported repertoire of olfactory receptor genes. Olfaction plays an important role in family bonding. However, to the best of our knowledge, no empirical data exist on their ability to remember familiar scents long-term. In an ethological experiment, two mother-daughter pairs were presented with feces of absent kin, absent non-kin, and present non-kin. Video recordings showed reactions of elephants recognizing kin after long-term separation but only minor reactions to non-kin. Results give the empirical implication that elephants have an olfactory memory longer than 1 year and up to 12 years and can distinguish between kin and non-kin just by scent. These findings confirm the significance of scent for family bonds in African elephants.

The Chemical Ecology of Elephants: 21st Century Additions to Our Understanding and Future Outlooks

Chemical signals are the oldest and most ubiquitous means of mediating intra- and interspecific interactions. The three extant species of elephants, the Asian elephant and the two African species, savanna and forest share sociobiological patterns in which chemical signals play a vital role. Elephants emit secretions and excretions and display behaviors that reveal the importance of odors in their interactions. In this review, we begin with a brief introduction of research in elephant chemical ecology leading up to the 21st century, and then we summarize the body of work that has built upon it and occurred in the last c. 20 years. The 21st century has expanded our understanding on elephant chemical ecology, revealing their use of odors to detect potential threats and make dietary choices. Furthermore, complementary in situ and ex situ studies have allowed the careful observations of captive elephants to be extended to fieldwork involving their wild counterparts. While important advances have been made in the 21st century, further work should investigate the roles of chemical signaling in elephants and how these signals interact with other sensory modalities. All three elephant species are threatened with extinction, and we suggest that chemical ecology can be applied for targeted conservation efforts.

African elephants can detect water from natural and artificial sources via olfactory cues

Water is vital for mammals. Yet, as ephemeral sources can be difficult to find, it raises the question, how do mammals locate water? Elephants (Loxodonta africana) are water-dependent herbivores that possess exceptional olfactory capabilities, and it has been suggested that they may locate water via smell. However, there is no evidence to support this claim. To explore this, we performed two olfactory choice experiments with semi-tame elephants. In the first, we tested whether elephants could locate water using olfactory cues alone. For this, we used water from two natural dams and a drinking trough utilised by the elephants. Distilled water acted as a control. In the second, we explored whether elephants could detect three key volatile organic compounds (VOCs) commonly associated with water (geosmin, 2-methylisoborneol, and dimethyl sulphide). We found that the elephants could locate water olfactorily, but not the distilled water. Moreover, they were also able to detect the three VOCs associated with water. However, these VOCs were not in the odour profiles of the water sources in our experiments. This suggests that the elephants were either able to detect the unique odour profiles of the different water sources or used other VOCs that they associate with water. Ultimately, our findings indicate that elephants can locate water olfactorily at small spatial scales, but the extent to which they, and other mammals, can detect water over larger scales (e.g. km) remains unclear.

Dimensions of Animal Consciousness

How does consciousness vary across the animal kingdom? Are some animals 'more conscious' than others? This article presents a multidimensional framework for understanding interspecies variation in states of consciousness. The framework distinguishes five key dimensions of variation: perceptual richness, evaluative richness, integration at a time, integration across time, and self-consciousness. For each dimension, existing experiments that bear on it are reviewed and future experiments are suggested. By assessing a given species against each dimension, we can construct a consciousness profile for that species. On this framework, there is no single scale along which species can be ranked as more or less conscious. Rather, each species has its own distinctive consciousness profile.

The use of a human's location and social cues by Asian elephants in an object-choice task

Asian elephants have previously demonstrated an ability to follow olfactory cues, but not human-provided social cues like pointing and gazing or orienting to find hidden food (Plotnik et al. in PLoS One 8:e61174, 2013; Anim Behav 88:91-98, 2014). In a study conducted with African elephants, however, elephants were able to follow a combination of these social cues to find food, even when the experimenter's position was counter to the location of the food. The authors of the latter study argued that the differences in the two species' performances might have been due to methodological differences in the study designs (Smet and Byrne in Curr Biol 23(20):2033-2037, 2013). To further investigate the reasons for these potential differences, we partially adapted Smet and Byrne (2013)'s design for a group of Asian elephants in Thailand. In a two-object-choice task in which only one of two buckets was baited with food, we found that, as a group, the elephants did not follow cues provided by an experimenter when she was positioned either equidistant between the buckets or closer to the incorrect bucket when providing the cues. The elephants did, however, follow cues when the experimenter was closer to the correct bucket. In addition, there was individual variability in the elephants' performance within and across experimental conditions. This indicates that in general, for Asian elephants, the pointing and/or gazing cues alone may not be salient enough; local enhancement in the form of the experimenter's position in relation to the food reward may represent a crucial, complementary cue. These results suggest that the variability within and between the species in their performance on these tasks could be due to a number of factors, including methodology, the elephants' experiences with their handlers, ecological differences in how Asian and African elephants use non-visual sensory information to find food in the wild, or some combination of the three.

Elephants have a nose for quantity

Animals often face situations that require making decisions based on quantity. Many species, including humans, rely on an ability to differentiate between more and less to make judgments about social relationships, territories, and food. Habitat-related choices require animals to decide between areas with greater and lesser quantities of food while also weighing relative risk of danger based on group size and predation risk. Such decisions can have a significant impact on survival for an animal and its social group. Many species have demonstrated a capacity for differentiating between two quantities of food and choosing the greater of the two, but they have done so based on information provided primarily in the visual domain. Using an object-choice task, we demonstrate that elephants are able to discriminate between two distinct quantities using their olfactory sense alone. We presented the elephants with choices between two containers of sunflower seeds. The relationship between the amount of seeds within the two containers was represented by 11 different ratios. Overall, the elephants chose the larger quantity of food by smelling for it. The elephants' performance was better when the relative difference between the quantities increased and worse when the ratio between the quantities of food increased, but was not affected by the overall quantity of food presented. These results are consistent with the performance of animals tested in the visual domain. This work has implications for the design of future, cross-phylogenetic cognitive comparisons that ought to account for differences in how animals sense their world.