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Salomons H, Ferrans M, Cusato C, Moore K, Woods V, Bray E, Kennedy B, Block T, Douglas L, Roberts A, Gruen M, Hare B. Longitudinal evidence for the emergence of multiple intelligences in assistance dog puppies. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.09.26.615218. [PMID: 39386489 PMCID: PMC11463349 DOI: 10.1101/2024.09.26.615218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/12/2024]
Abstract
Cognitive test batteries suggest that adult dogs have different types of cognitive abilities that vary independently. In the current study, we tested puppies repeatedly over a crucial period of development to explore the timing and rate at which these different cognitive skills develop. Service dog puppies (n = 113), raised using two different socialization strategies, were either tested longitudinally (n =91) or at a single time point (n = 22). Subjects tested longitudinally participated in the battery every two weeks during and just beyond their final period of rapid brain growth (from approximately 8-20 weeks of age). Control puppies only participated in the test battery once, which allowed us to evaluate the impact of repeated testing. In support of the multiple intelligences hypothesis (MIH), cognitive skills emerged at different points across the testing period, not simultaneously. Maturational patterns also varied between cognitive skills, with puppies showing adult-like performance on some tasks only weeks after a skill emerged, while never achieving adult performance in others. Differences in rearing strategy did not lead to differences in developmental patterns while, in some cases, repeated testing did. Overall, our findings provide strong support for the MIH by demonstrating differentiated development across the cognitive abilities tested.
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Riemer S, Bonorand A, Stolzlechner L. Evidence for the communicative function of human-directed gazing in 6- to 7-week-old dog puppies. Anim Cogn 2024; 27:61. [PMID: 39311933 PMCID: PMC11420273 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-024-01898-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2024] [Accepted: 08/06/2024] [Indexed: 09/26/2024]
Abstract
In human infants, the ability to show gaze alternations between an object of interest and another individual is considered fundamental to the development of complex social-cognitive abilities. Here we show that well-socialised dog puppies show gaze alternations in two contexts at an early age, 6-7 weeks. Thus, 69.4% of puppies in a novel object test and 45.59% of puppies during an unsolvable task alternated their gaze at least once between a person's face and the object. In both contexts, the frequency of gaze alternations was positively correlated with the duration of whimpering, supporting the communicative nature of puppies' gazing. Furthermore, the number of gaze alternations in the two contexts was correlated, indicating an underlying propensity for gazing at humans despite likely different motivations in the two contexts. Similar to humans, and unlike great apes or wolves, domestic dogs show gaze alternations from an early age if they are well-socialised. They appear to have a genetic preparedness to communicate with humans via gaze alternations early in ontogeny, but they may need close contact with humans for this ability to emerge, highlighting the interactive effects of domestication and environmental factors on behavioural development in dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Riemer
- Messerli Research Institute, Department of Interdisciplinary Life Sciences, Vetmeduni Vienna, Vienna, 1210, Austria.
- Division of Animal Welfare, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, 3012, Switzerland.
| | - Alina Bonorand
- Division of Animal Welfare, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, 3012, Switzerland
| | - Lisa Stolzlechner
- Department of Behavioral & Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, 1030, Austria
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Dobos P, Pongrácz P. You talkin' to me? Functional breed selection may have fundamentally influenced dogs' sensitivity to human verbal communicative cues. BMC Biol 2024; 22:183. [PMID: 39183286 PMCID: PMC11346259 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-024-01983-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Accepted: 08/15/2024] [Indexed: 08/27/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The ability to learn from humans via observation was considered to be equally present across properly socialized dogs. We showed recently that cooperative working breeds learned from a human demonstrator more effectively. We hypothesized that functional breed selection could affect sensitivity to human attention-eliciting behavior. Accordingly, we ran the first ever study on dogs that compared the effect of ostensive and neutral verbal communication in a social learning scenario. We used the detour paradigm around a transparent V-shaped fence with either ostensive (addressing the receiver both with words and specific, attention-eliciting prosody) or neutral speech (monotonous reciting of a short poem) demonstration. The other features (gestures, movement) of the demonstration sequence were kept identical between the two conditions. We tested (N = 70) companion dogs from 17 cooperative and 16 independent breeds in three 1-min trials. Subjects had to obtain the reward by detouring around the fence. RESULTS Detour latencies of the cooperative dogs improved after both ostensive and neutral speech demonstrations. The independent dogs did not improve their detour latency in either of the conditions. Remarkably, ostensive verbal utterances elicited longer relative looking time towards the demonstrator, cooperative dogs looked longer at the demonstrator, and longer looking time resulted in more successful detours. CONCLUSIONS Our study provides the first indication that functional breed selection had a significant impact on dogs' sensitivity to ostensive human communication, which, apart from being crucially important for social learning from humans, until now was considered as a uniformly present heritage of domestication in dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Dobos
- Department of Ethology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/c, Budapest, 1117, Hungary
| | - Péter Pongrácz
- Department of Ethology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/c, Budapest, 1117, Hungary.
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Hare E, Essler JL, Otto CM, Ebbecke D, Serpell JA. Development of a modified C-BARQ for evaluating behavior in working dogs. Front Vet Sci 2024; 11:1371630. [PMID: 39005721 PMCID: PMC11239546 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1371630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 06/13/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Current high demand for effective odor detection dogs calls for the development of reliable methods for measuring performance-related behavioral phenotypes in these highly specialized working animals. The Canine Behavioral Assessment & Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ) is a widely used behavioral assessment tool among working dog organizations with a demonstrated ability to predict success/failure of dogs in training. However, this instrument was developed originally to study the prevalence of behavior problems in the pet dog population, and it therefore lacks the capacity to measure specific behavioral propensities that may also be important predictors of working dog success. The current paper examines the factor structure, internal reliability, and content validity of a modified version of the C-BARQ designed to evaluate four new domains of canine behavior in addition to those encompassed by the original C-BARQ. These domains, labeled Playfulness, Impulsivity, Distractibility, and Basophobia (fear of falling), respectively, describe aspects of canine behavior or temperament which are believed to contribute substantially to working dog performance. Methods Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of owner/handler questionnaire responses based on a sample of 1,117 working odor detection dogs. Results A total of 15 factors were extracted by EFA, 10 of which correspond to original C-BARQ factors. The remaining 5 comprise the four new domains- Playfulness, Impulsivity, Distractibility, and Basophobia- as well as a fifth new factor labeled Food focus. Discussion The resulting Working Dog Canine Behavioral Assessment & Research Questionnaire (WDC-BARQ) successfully expands the measurement capacities of the original C-BARQ to include dimensions of behavior/temperament of particular relevance to many working dog populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Hare
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
- Dog Genetics LLC, Astoria, NY, United States
| | - Jennifer Lynn Essler
- College of Agriculture and Technology, SUNY Cobleskill, Cobleskill, NY, United States
| | - Cynthia M Otto
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Dana Ebbecke
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - James A Serpell
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
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Foraita M, Howell T, Bennett P. Executive Functions as Measured by the Dog Executive Function Scale (DEFS) over the Lifespan of Dogs. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13030533. [PMID: 36766423 PMCID: PMC9913113 DOI: 10.3390/ani13030533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Executive Functions (EFs) are needed for effortful self-regulation of behaviour and are known to change over the lifespan in humans. In domestic dogs, EFs can be assessed through behavioural rating scales, such as the Dog Executive Function Scale (DEFS). The primary aim of this study was to investigate whether the DEFS, developed initially using a sample of adult dogs, can be used in juvenile (<1 year) and senior (>8 years) dogs. Confirmatory factor analysis of a juvenile and senior dog sample led to good model fit indices, indicating that juvenile and senior dogs' EF structure follows the same functional organisation as found in the DEFS. The secondary aim was to analyse the lifespan development of EFs. Analysis of subscale scores revealed multifaceted relationships with age for four subscales. Working Memory and Attention Towards Owner showed the u-shaped curve traditionally associated with the lifespan development of EFs. Forms of inhibition showed complex associations with age, i.e., Delay Inhibition declined in aging and Motor Regulation increased during aging. Training history and Working Status influenced performance independent of age. More highly trained dogs and working dogs exhibited higher EF skills. Training history appeared more important for EF in non-working dogs than working dogs, perhaps because all working dogs receive a high level of training.
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Defining the Characteristics of Successful Biosecurity Scent Detection Dogs. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13030504. [PMID: 36766394 PMCID: PMC9913823 DOI: 10.3390/ani13030504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Revised: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/27/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
To perform their role effectively, scent detection dogs require certain characteristics. Identifying these characteristics will inform the selection of prospective dogs and preferred approaches to their training. The current study drew upon the perspectives of industry stakeholders to identify the behavioural traits considered relevant for detection dogs in biosecurity screening roles. Dog handlers, trainers, and supervisors (n = 25) in Australian biosecurity operations participated in focus group interviews to determine the perceived characteristics that, in their experience, influence detection performance. Their descriptions were used to create a questionnaire which was then administered to handlers to assess the working behaviours of current biosecurity dogs. Responses were collected for 88% of the operational dogs (n = 36). An exploratory factor analysis revealed seven tentative dimensions: search motivation, emotional stability, search arousal, food motivation, play motivation, search independence, and search focus. Search motivation and search arousal were both positively associated with handler ratings of detection performance (p ≤ 0.006). In general, biosecurity dogs were scored consistently high in ratings of search motivation, emotional stability, and food motivation. Our approach has advanced our understanding of the working behaviours and characteristic profile of biosecurity detector dogs and will be used to inform candidate selection processes.
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Puppies in the problem-solving paradigm: quick males and social females. Anim Cogn 2022; 26:791-797. [PMID: 36417021 PMCID: PMC10066122 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01714-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Revised: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
AbstractWe report an observational, double-blind study that examined puppies’ behaviors while engaged in solving an experimental food retrieval task (food retrieval task instrument: FRTI). The experimental setting included passive social distractors (i.e., the dog’s owner and a stranger). The focus was on how the social and physical environment shapes puppies’ behaviors according to sex. The dependent variables were the number of tasks solved on an apparatus (Performance Index) and the time required to solve the first task (Speed). Sex and Stress were set as explanatory factors, and Social Interest, FRTI interactions, other behavior, and age as covariates. The main findings were that male puppies solved the first task faster than females. On the other hand, females displayed significantly more social interest and did so more rapidly than males. Males showed delayed task resolution. This study demonstrates sex differences in a problem-solving task in dog puppies for the first time, thus highlighting that sexually dimorphic behavioral differences in problem-solving strategies develop early on during ontogenesis.
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Cavalli C, Dzik M, Brarda M, Bentosela M. Trained dogs do not give up. Effects of advanced training on the persistence of domestic dogs. Behav Processes 2022; 203:104769. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2022.104769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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Foraita M, Howell T, Bennett P. Development of the dog executive function scale (DEFS) for adult dogs. Anim Cogn 2022; 25:1479-1491. [PMID: 35579766 PMCID: PMC9113072 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01629-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Executive functions (EFs) are cognitive processes that are used to effortfully self-regulate behaviour and might be important for dogs’ success in working and pet roles. Currently, studies are assessing dogs’ EF skills through often laborious cognitive measures, leading to small sample sizes and lacking measures of reliability. A complementary method is needed. The aim of this study was to develop a dog executive function scale (DEFS) for adult dogs. Focus groups were held with people working with dogs professionally to refine a pool of items describing dog behaviours related to EF. A survey was distributed online to a convenience sample of N = 714 owners of adult dogs. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis identified six distinguishable factors named behavioural flexibility, motor inhibition, attention towards owner, instruction following, delay inhibition and working memory. These factors appear similar to factors identified in human EF scales. Working dogs exhibit higher EF scores on the DEFS than non-working dogs. Dogs sourced from breeders exhibited higher DEFS scores than dogs sourced from shelters, and the amount of training received positively correlated with dogs’ DEFS scores. The DEFS requires further validation with cognitive measures. The DEFS could then be used by researchers to complement assessment of dogs’ EF skills through cognitive measures or assess dogs’ EF skills in large samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maike Foraita
- Anthrozoology Research Group, School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Bendigo, Australia.
| | - Tiffani Howell
- Anthrozoology Research Group, School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Bendigo, Australia
| | - Pauleen Bennett
- Anthrozoology Research Group, School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Bendigo, Australia
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Wallner Werneck Mendes J, Resende B, Savalli C. Effect of different experiences with humans in dogs' visual communication. Behav Processes 2021; 192:104487. [PMID: 34437981 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2021.104487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Revised: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Dogs are particularly skillful in communicating with humans, and growing evidence points towards the importance of both species intertwined evolutionary history and intense daily partnership. Gaze alternation is a communicative behavior used by dogs from a very young age and is affected by factors such as aging and experience. We analyzed how different degrees of daily human interaction affect dogs' gazing behavior in the unsolvable task, where a desired food becomes inaccessible. Three groups with different degrees of daily exposure to humans were compared: pet dogs that live inside the house, pet dogs that live outside the house, and shelter dogs. We found no difference in latency to the first gaze, but pet dogs did show a higher proportion of individuals engaging in gaze alternation, a higher number of gaze alternations, and a longer duration of gaze than shelter dogs. Additionally, dogs living inside the house gazed more at the experimenter than dogs living outside. Overall, our results indicate a strong influence of experience over the development and use of these communicative behaviors in dogs, with groups that are closer to people in their daily lives being more willing to communicate with humans as a strategy to obtain a desired goal.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Briseida Resende
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Carine Savalli
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Department of Public Policies and Collective Health, Federal University of São Paulo, Santos, São Paulo, Brazil
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11
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Effect of Sex and Reproductive Status on Inhibitory Control and Social Cognition in the Domestic Dog ( Canis familiaris). Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11082448. [PMID: 34438905 PMCID: PMC8388798 DOI: 10.3390/ani11082448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Various behavioral differences exist between male and female dogs, but very little research has focused on how sex influences cognition. Even fewer studies have taken sex hormones into account. Our aim was to investigate whether dogs’ sex and neutering status can influence two important cognitive traits: inhibitory control and social cognition. Inhibitory control was assessed using the cylinder test. In this task, the dog is required to inhibit reaching for a treat directly through a transparent barrier, and instead go around the barrier to access the treat. Social cognition was assessed using the unsolvable task, during which a food reward is visible but impossible to access. Dogs have three opportunities for action in this situation: (a) persisting with the problem independently, (b) seeking attention from a human, or (c) abandoning the task. Males were more impulsive and independent compared to females, whereas females had greater inhibitory control and were more likely to gaze at a human during a problem-solving situation. Since neutering status did not affect the results, it seems likely that these sex differences arose during early development and were not affected by levels of circulating sex hormones to a great extent. Abstract Sex differences in a variety of cognitive traits have long been reported in various species, including dogs. However, only a few canine studies have taken the possible effect of reproductive hormones into account. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of sex and reproductive status of pet dogs (N = 1032) on two cognitive traits: inhibitory control and social cognition. Inhibitory control was assessed using the cylinder test, and the dogs’ tendency to initiate social contact with a human during a problem-solving situation was assessed using the unsolvable task. Female dogs had a significantly higher success rate in the cylinder test compared to males, and they spent significantly more time in human-directed behavior during the unsolvable task. In contrast, males spent significantly more time in independent behavior during the unsolvable task. Reproductive status had no significant effect on the results of the cylinder test or the unsolvable task. Our results showed that female dogs asked for more help/used a more cooperative strategy during a problem-solving situation and had greater inhibitory control compared to males. According to our results, it seems likely that these sex differences were not influenced to a large extent by reproductive hormones.
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12
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Working memory and inhibition in 7.5-week-old Seeing Eye Dog puppies. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Bray EE, Otto CM, Udell MAR, Hall NJ, Johnston AM, MacLean EL. Enhancing the Selection and Performance of Working Dogs. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:644431. [PMID: 34055947 PMCID: PMC8149746 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.644431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Dogs perform a variety of integral roles in our society, engaging in work ranging from assistance (e.g., service dogs, guide dogs) and therapy to detection (e.g., search-and-rescue dogs, explosive detection dogs) and protection (e.g., military and law enforcement dogs). However, success in these roles, which requires dogs to meet challenging behavioral criteria and to undergo extensive training, is far from guaranteed. Therefore, enhancing the selection process is critical for the effectiveness and efficiency of working dog programs and has the potential to optimize how resources are invested in these programs, increase the number of available working dogs, and improve working dog welfare. In this paper, we review two main approaches for achieving this goal: (1) developing selection tests and criteria that can efficiently and effectively identify ideal candidates from the overall pool of candidate dogs, and (2) developing approaches to enhance performance, both at the individual and population level, via improvements in rearing, training, and breeding. We summarize key findings from the empirical literature regarding best practices for assessing, selecting, and improving working dogs, and conclude with future steps and recommendations for working dog organizations, breeders, trainers, and researchers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily E Bray
- Arizona Canine Cognition Center, School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States.,Canine Companions for Independence, National Headquarters, Santa Rosa, CA, United States
| | - Cynthia M Otto
- Penn Vet Working Dog Center, Department of Clinical Sciences and Advanced Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Monique A R Udell
- Human-Animal Interaction Laboratory, Department of Animal and Rangeland Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
| | - Nathaniel J Hall
- Canine Olfaction Lab, Department of Animal and Food Science, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | - Angie M Johnston
- Boston College Canine Cognition Center, Psychology and Neuroscience Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Evan L MacLean
- Arizona Canine Cognition Center, School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States.,Cognitive Science Program, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States.,Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States.,College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
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Validation of a Behavior Test for Predicting Puppies' Suitability as Detection Dogs. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11040993. [PMID: 33916191 PMCID: PMC8065730 DOI: 10.3390/ani11040993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Behavioral characteristics are the most influential factor in the success of a working dog. The need for highly capable detection dogs continues to rise; but reliable methods for early selection are lacking. The current study aimed to assess the reliability and validity of a behavioral test for assessing detection dog suitability. A cohort of candidate detection dog puppies (n = 60) were tested at 3; 5; and 11 months of age; as well as at the completion of training at approximately one year. Tests were designed to assess important detection dog behavioral characteristics such as search ability and fearfulness. Inter-rater reliability was high between independent observers. Convergent validity was demonstrated by comparing Principal Component Analysis (PCA) scores from the behavior test to trainer ratings using the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ) and a survey of detection dog traits. Performance on the behavior test predicted adult selection as a detection dog as early as 3 months. The methods reported will be valuable for improving selection measures and enhancing collaborations across breeding programs in order to increase the availability of highly capable detection dogs.
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A review of the unsolvable task in dog communication and cognition: comparing different methodologies. Anim Cogn 2021; 24:907-922. [PMID: 33754284 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-021-01501-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2020] [Revised: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Communication between dogs and humans is a topic of growing interest, and the "unsolvable task" is a common method used to measure human-directed communication. In this task, dogs learn how to solve a problem to obtain a reward. After a fixed number of trials, the reward becomes impossible to access, arguably leading to communicative attempts from the dog. Although useful to observe dogs' communicative behaviors in a fairly naturalistic situation, the methodology varies among studies regarding apparatus, number of trials, and other factors. The proxies used, for instance, gaze duration or frequency of gaze alternation, also vary, and there are discrepancies and a debate regarding what the task actually measures. Therefore, in this study, we reviewed the usage of the unsolvable task in canids of the genus Canis, searching Web of Science and Scopus for the terms "dog*", "Canis", "dingo*", "wolf" or "wolves" in the title and "unsolvable task" or "impossible task" in the topic. We included thirty-five studies in this review and discussed their different methodologies and proxies, such as different apparatuses, number of solvable trials, and different interpretations of "looking back", pointing out how they can affect results and hinder comparisons. Lastly, we used current data to propose strategies to homogenize the use of this important paradigm, with an ethogram of possible behaviors and their interpretation and a predefined set of methodological aspects for future research.
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16
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Hare B, Ferrans M. Is cognition the secret to working dog success? Anim Cogn 2021; 24:231-237. [PMID: 33687597 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-021-01491-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Dogs' special relationship with humans not only makes them ubiquitous in our lives, but working dogs specifically perform essential functions for us such as sniffing out bombs and pulling wheelchairs for the disabled. To enhance the performance of working dogs, it is essential to understand the cognitive skills that underlie and lead to their success. This review details recent work in the field of canine cognition, including how dogs have evolved socio-cognitive skills that mimic or, in some cases, rival even our closest primate relatives. We review how these findings have laid the foundation for new studies that hope to help enhance working dog programs. This includes work that has begun to reveal the development and stability of the most important traits for service work. Discoveries like these suggest the possibility of translating what we have learned to improve breeding, selection, and training for these jobs. The latest research we review here shows promise in contributing to the production of better dogs and, consequently, more help for people.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Hare
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, USA
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, USA
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, USA
| | - Morgan Ferrans
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, USA.
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, USA.
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17
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Abstract
Interspecific communication between dogs and humans enables dogs to occupy significant roles in human society, both in companion and working roles. Dogs excel at using human communicative signals in problem-solving tasks, and solicit human contact when unable to solve a problem. Dogs' sociocognitive behavior likely results from a selection for attention to humans during domestication, but is highly susceptible to environmental factors. Training for particular tasks appears to enhance dog-human communication, but effects may depend on the nature of the relationship determined by their role. Our aim was to examine two types of social cognition (responsiveness to human gestures, and human-directed communicative behavior in an unsolvable task) in pet dogs (n = 29) and detection dogs (n = 35). The groups did not differ in their ability to follow human signals, but pets were less responsive to signals given by a stranger than by their owner. Pets also exhibited more human-directed gazing in the unsolvable task, showing a bias for gazing at their owner compared with the stranger, whereas detection dogs showed greater persistence in attempting to solve the task compared with pets. Thus, different aspects of dogs' sociocognitive behavior may differentially vary as a function of selection or training for particular roles.
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Dog cognitive development: a longitudinal study across the first 2 years of life. Anim Cogn 2020; 24:311-328. [PMID: 33113034 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-020-01443-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
While our understanding of adult dog cognition has grown considerably over the past 20 years, relatively little is known about the ontogeny of dog cognition. To assess the development and longitudinal stability of cognitive traits in dogs, we administered a battery of tasks to 160 candidate assistance dogs at 2 timepoints. The tasks were designed to measure diverse aspects of cognition, ranging from executive function (e.g., inhibitory control, reversal learning, memory) to sensory discrimination (e.g., vision, audition, olfaction) to social interaction with humans. Subjects first participated as 8-10-week-old puppies, and then were retested on the same tasks at ~ 21 months of age. With few exceptions, task performance improved with age, with the largest effects observed for measures of executive function and social gaze. Results also indicated that individual differences were both early emerging and enduring; for example, social attention to humans, use of human communicative signals, independent persistence at a problem, odor discrimination, and inhibitory control all exhibited moderate levels of rank-order stability between the two timepoints. Using multiple regression, we found that young adult performance on many cognitive tasks could be predicted from a set of cognitive measures collected in early development. Our findings contribute to knowledge about changes in dog cognition across early development as well as the origins and developmental stability of individual differences.
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Lazarowski L, Waggoner LP, Krichbaum S, Singletary M, Haney P, Rogers B, Angle C. Selecting Dogs for Explosives Detection: Behavioral Characteristics. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:597. [PMID: 33088829 PMCID: PMC7493654 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Detection dogs are widely considered the most effective and adaptive method for explosives detection. Increases in emerging sophisticated threats are accelerating the demand for highly capable explosives detection, causing a strain on available supplies of quality canines worldwide. These strains are further compounded by rigorous behavioral standards required to meet mission-specific capabilities, leading to high rates of dogs disqualified from training or deployment. Ample research has explored the behavioral characteristics important for assistance, guide, and other traditional working roles, while those corresponding to more specialized tasks such as detection of explosives are not as well-understood. In this review we aim to identify the behavioral characteristics important for operational tasks of explosives detection dogs, contrasting with that of other working roles and highlighting key differences between explosives and other types of detection dogs. Further, we review the available research on methods for assessing and selecting candidate detection dogs and make recommendations for future directions and applications to the industry. Improvements and standardization in assessment technology allowing for the identification and enhancement of behavioral characteristics will be key to advancing canine detection technology in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Lazarowski
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Lowell Paul Waggoner
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Sarah Krichbaum
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States.,Department of Psychology, College of Liberal Arts, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Melissa Singletary
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States.,Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Pamela Haney
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Bart Rogers
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Craig Angle
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
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Bray EE, Gruen ME, Gnanadesikan GE, Horschler DJ, Levy KM, Kennedy BS, Hare BA, MacLean EL. Cognitive characteristics of 8- to 10-week-old assistance dog puppies. Anim Behav 2020; 166:193-206. [PMID: 32719570 PMCID: PMC7384752 DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
To characterize the early ontogeny of dog cognition, we tested 168 domestic dog, Canis familiaris, puppies (97 females, 71 males; mean age = 9.2 weeks) in a novel test battery based on previous tasks developed and employed with adolescent and adult dogs. Our sample consisted of Labrador retrievers, golden retrievers and Labrador × golden retriever crosses from 65 different litters at Canine Companions for Independence, an organization that breeds, trains and places assistance dogs for people with disabilities. Puppies participated in a 3-day cognitive battery that consisted of 14 tasks measuring different cognitive abilities and temperament traits such as executive function (e.g. inhibitory control, reversal learning, working memory), use of social cues, sensory discriminations and reactivity to and recovery from novel situations. At 8-10 weeks of age, and despite minimal experience with humans, puppies reliably used a variety of cooperative-communicative gestures from humans. Puppies accurately remembered the location of hidden food for delays of up to 20 s, and succeeded in a variety of visual, olfactory and auditory discrimination problems. They also showed some skill at executive function tasks requiring inhibitory control and reversal learning, although they scored lower on these tasks than is typical in adulthood. Taken together, our results confirm the early emergence of sensitivity to human communication in dogs and contextualize these skills within a broad array of other cognitive abilities measured at the same stage of ontogeny.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily E Bray
- Arizona Canine Cognition Center, School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, U.S.A
- Canine Companions for Independence, National Headquarters, Santa Rosa, CA, U.S.A
| | - Margaret E Gruen
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, U.S.A
| | - Gitanjali E Gnanadesikan
- Arizona Canine Cognition Center, School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, U.S.A
- Cognitive Science Program, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, U.S.A
| | - Daniel J Horschler
- Arizona Canine Cognition Center, School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, U.S.A
- Cognitive Science Program, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, U.S.A
| | - Kerinne M Levy
- Canine Companions for Independence, National Headquarters, Santa Rosa, CA, U.S.A
| | - Brenda S Kennedy
- Canine Companions for Independence, National Headquarters, Santa Rosa, CA, U.S.A
| | - Brian A Hare
- Duke Canine Cognition Center, Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, U.S.A
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, U.S.A
| | - Evan L MacLean
- Arizona Canine Cognition Center, School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, U.S.A
- Cognitive Science Program, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, U.S.A
- Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, U.S.A
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, U.S.A
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Tiira K, Tikkanen A, Vainio O. Inhibitory control – Important trait for explosive detection performance in police dogs? Appl Anim Behav Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2020.104942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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