Biological fate and interaction with cytochromes P450 of the nanocarrier material, D-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate

Pharmacokinetic/Pharmacodynamic Assessment of the Structural Refinement of Clopidogrel Focusing on the Balance between Bioactivation and Deactivation

The delicate balance between ischemic and bleeding risks is a critical factor in antiplatelet therapy administration. Clopidogrel and prasugrel, belonging to the thienopyridine class of antiplatelet drugs, are known for their variability in individual responsiveness and high incidence of bleeding events, respectively. The present study is centered on the development and assessment of a range of deuterated thienopyridine derivatives, leveraging insights from structure-pharmacokinetic relationships of clopidogrel and prasugrel. Our approaches were grounded in the molecular framework of clopidogrel and incorporated the C2-pharmacophore design from prasugrel. The selection of ester or carbamate substituents at the C2-position facilitated the generation of the 2-oxointermediate through hydrolysis, akin to prasugrel, thereby bypassing the issue of CYP2C19 dependency. The bulky C2-pharmacophore in our approach distinguishes itself from prasugrel's acetyloxy substituent by exhibiting a moderated hydrolysis rate, resulting in a more gradual formation of the active metabolite. Excessive and rapid release of the active metabolite, believed to be linked with an elevated risk of bleeding, is thus mitigated. Our proposed structural modification retains the hydrolysis-sensitive methyl ester of clopidogrel but substitutes it with a deuterated methyl group, shown to effectively reduce metabolic deactivation. Three promising compounds demonstrated a pharmacokinetic profile similar to that of clopidogrel at four times the dose, while also augmenting its antiplatelet activity. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Inspired by the structure-pharmacokinetic relationship of clopidogrel and prasugrel, a range of clopidogrel derivatives were designed, synthesized, and assessed. Among them, three promising compounds have been identified, striking a delicate balance between efficacy and safety for antiplatelet therapy. Additionally, the ozagrel prodrug conjugate was discovered to exert a synergistic therapeutic effect alongside clopidogrel.

Unraveling the cytotoxicity and cellular uptake of low, medium and high molecular weight polyethylene glycol polymers in MCF-7 cells by green UPLC-MS/MS methods

Unraveling the cytotoxicity and cellular uptake of low, medium and high molecular weight polyethylene glycol (PEG) in cells is important for evaluation of therapeutic efficacy and toxicity of PEGylated drug delivery systems. In this study, cellular uptake of PEG600, PEG2K, PEG4K and PEG10K in MCF-7 cells was first studied by an UPLC-MS/MS assay coupled with collision induced dissociation (CID) in source technique. The CID of PEG in source with high values of declustering potentials generates numerous PEG-related product ions. These PEG-related fragment ions can be further broken into specific product ions in the collision cell as alternative ions for detection of PEG. The quantification of PEG was finally performed with the MRM transition (m/z 221.0 → 89.0). The experimental results indicated that the toxicity of PEG600, PEG2K, PEG4K and PEG10K was not significant at concentrations of 5-1200 μg/mL and the amounts of PEG polymers entry into MCF-7 cells at was small. The greenness of the developed analytical methods was also assessed by Analytical Eco-Scale, Analytical Greenness calculator (AGREE) and Green Analytical Procedure Index (GAPI) in this study.

Investigations into the characterization, degradation, and applications of biodegradable polymers by mass spectrometry

Biodegradable polymers have been getting more and more attention because of their contribution to the plastic pollution environmental issues and to move towards a circular economy. Nevertheless, biodegradable materials still exhibit various disadvantages restraining a widespread use in the market. Therefore, additional research efforts are required to improve their performance. Mass spectrometry (MS) affords a relevant contribution to optimize biodegradable polymer synthesis, to confirm macromolecular structures, to examine along the time the progress of degradation processes and highlight advantages and drawbacks in the extensive applications. This review aims to provide an overview of the MS investigations carried out to support the synthesis of biodegradable polymers, with helpful information on undesirable products or polymerization mechanism, to understand deterioration pathways by the structure of degradation products and to follow drug release and pharmacokinetic. Additionally, it summarizes MS studies addressed on environmental and health issues related to the extensive use of plastic materials, that is, potential migration of additives or microplastics identification and quantification. The paper is focused on the most significant studies relating to synthetic and microbial biodegradable polymers published in the last 15 years, not including agro-polymers such as proteins and polysaccharides.

Effect of nano-delivery systems on the bioavailability and tissue biodistribution of vitamin E tocotrienols

Vitamin E is one of the most important essential vitamins to support the regulation of oxidative stress in human body. Tocotrienols are part of the vitamin E family. The potentials of tocotrienols as nutraceutical ingredient are largely understated due to low oral bioavailability, which is a common problem associated with fat-soluble bioactive compounds. Nanoencapsulation technology offers innovative solutions to enhance the delivery mechanisms of these compounds. In this study, the effect of nanoencapsulation on the oral bioavailability and tissue distribution of tocotrienols were investigated using two types of formulations, i.e. nanovesicles (NV-T3) and solid lipid nanoparticles (NP-T3). At least 5-fold increment in maximum plasma concentrations, evident with dual-peak pharmacokinetic profiles, were observed after oral administration of nano-encapsulated tocotrienols. Plasma tocotrienol composition showed a shift from α-tocotrienol dominant in control group (Control-T3) to γ-tocotrienol dominant after nanoencapsulation. Tissue distribution of tocotrienols was found to be strongly influenced by the type of nanoformulation. Both nanovesicles (NV-T3) and nanoparticles (NP-T3) showed elevated accumulation in the kidneys and liver (5-fold) compared to control group while selectivity for α-tocotrienol was evident for NP-T3. In brain and liver of rats given NP-T3, α-tocotrienol emerged as the dominant congener (>80%). Acute oral administration of nanoencapsulated tocotrienols did not show signs of toxicity. The study concluded enhanced bioavailability and selective tissue accumulation of tocotrienol congeners when delivered via nanoencapsulation.

Full-profile pharmacokinetics, anticancer activity and toxicity of an extended release trivalent PEGylated irinotecan prodrug

Irinotecan is an anticancer topoisomerase I inhibitor that acts as a prodrug of the active metabolite, SN-38. Unfortunately, the limited utility of irinotecan is attributed to its pH-dependent stability, short half-life and dose-limiting toxicity. To address this problem, a novel trivalent PEGylated prodrug (PEG-[Irinotecan]3) has been synthesized and its full-profile pharmacokinetics, antitumor activity and toxicity compared with those of irinotecan. The results show that after intravenous administration to rats, PEG-[Irinotecan]3 undergoes stepwise loss of irinotecan to form PEG-[Irinotecan]3‒x (x = 1,2) and PEG-[linker] during which time the released irinotecan undergoes conversion to SN-38. As compared with conventional irinotecan, PEG-[Irinotecan]3 displays extended release of irinotecan and efficient formation of SN-38 with significantly improved AUC and half-life. In a colorectal cancer-bearing model in nude mice, the tumor concentrations of irinotecan and SN-38 produced by PEG-[Irinotecan]3 were respectively 86.2 and 2293 times higher at 48 h than produced by irinotecan. In summary, PEG-[Irinotecan]3 displays superior pharmacokinetic characteristics and antitumor activity with lower toxicity than irinotecan. This supports the view that PEG-[Irinotecan]3 is a superior anticancer drug to irinotecan and it has entered the phase II trial stage.

Unraveling the in vivo biological fate of mPEG2000-PDLLA2500-COOH diblock copolymers by LC-MS/MS based on CID in source technique

Methoxy poly (ethylene glycol)-poly(D, L-lactic acid) (mPEG-PDLLA) is a biocompatible and amphiphilic diblock copolymer composed of a hydrophilic poly(ethylene glycol) block and a hydrophobic poly(D, L-lactic acid) block, which can self-assemble into micelles in aqueous solution. It is one of the most widely used diblock copolymers for drug delivery, drug solubilization and drug encapsulation. Fully characterizing the in vivo fate of mPEG-PDLLA diblock copolymers is important to promote the further development of polymer-based nanocarrier drug delivery systems. However, to date, a bioanalysis assay for simultaneous quantification of mPEG-PDLLA and mPEG has not been reported. In this study, we developed such a novel LC-MS/MS assay based on CID in source technique and used it to study the multiple-dose pharmacokinetic, tissue distribution and excretion of mPEG2000-PDLLA2500-COOH and mPEG2000 in rat after intravenous administration. The results indicate that mPEG2000-PDLLA2500-COOH and mPEG2000 are mainly distributed to the liver, lung, spleen and kidney after intravenous administration. mPEG2000-PDLLA2500-COOH is mostly excreted via the renal route in the form of mPEG2000. Overall, the results of this study provide a comprehensive and clear picture of the in vivo fate of mPEG2000-PDLLA2500-COOH which will be useful in evaluating the efficiency and safety of polymer-based nanocarrier drug delivery systems.

Electro-responsive micelle-based universal drug delivery system for on-demand therapy in epilepsy

A universal drug delivery system (DDS) with brain-targeted ability is demanded to enhance antiepileptic therapeutic efficacy and reduce side effects in multiple types of epileptic seizures. In this study, we reported a micelle-based DDS possessing the brain-targeted ability and electro-responsive feature for universal delivery of antiepileptic drugs (AEDs). The system is fabricated by ferrocene (Fc)-conjugated D-a-tocopherol polyethylene glycol succinate and amphiphilic block copolymer, which improve the drug encapsulation of different AEDs. Interestingly, the intrinsic nature of TPGS-Fc including transferrin receptor-mediated transcytosis and efflux pump inhibition endows the system with high permeability across the blood-brain barrier. Based on the hydrophobic-hydrophilic transition of Fc, the micelles can respond to epileptiform discharges and thus release the loaded AEDs. Improved antiepileptic efficacy of the micelles has been demonstrated in acute, continuous, and chronic epilepsy models. In summary, we have developed a universal micelle-based DDS for various AEDs delivery, which provides a promising approach to on-demand therapy of different epileptic seizures.

Differential Mobility Spectrometry-Tandem Mass Spectrometry with Multiple Ion Monitoring Coupled with in Source-Collision Induced Dissociation: A New Strategy for the Quantitative Analysis of Pharmaceutical Polymer Excipients in Rat Plasma

Polylactic acids (PLAs) are synthetic polymers composed of repeating lactic acid subunits. For their good biocompatibility, PLAs have been approved and widely applied as pharmaceutical excipients and scaffold materials. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry is a powerful analytical tool not only for pharmaceutical ingredients but also for pharmaceutical excipients. However, the characterization of PLAs presents particular problems for mass spectrometry techniques. In addition to their high molecular weights and wide polydispersity, multiple charging and various adductions are intrinsic features of electrospray ionization. In the present study, a strategy combining of differential mobility spectrometry (DMS), multiple ion monitoring (MIM) and in-source collision-induced dissociation (in source-CID) has been developed and applied to the characterization and quantitation of PLAs in rat plasma. First, PLAs will be fragmented into characteristic fragment ions under high declustering potential in the ionization source. The specific fragment ions are then screened twice by quadrupoles to ensure a high signal intensity and low interference for mass spectrometry detection. Subsequently, DMS technique has been applied to further reduce the background noise. The appropriately chosen surrogate specific precursor ions could be utilized for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of PLAs, which provided results with the advantages of low endogenous interference, sufficient sensitivity and selectivity for bioassay. The linearity of the method was evaluated over the concentration range 3-100 μg/mL (r² = 0.996) for PLA 20,000. The LC-DMS-MIM coupled with in source-CID strategy may contribute to the pharmaceutical studies of PLAs and the possible prospects of other pharmaceutical excipients.

TPEN/TPGS (T2) combo dramatically reduces Philadelphia chromosome-positive pro-lymphoblastic B leukemia in BALB/c mice

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) is hematological neoplasia that affects human beings from early life to adulthood. Although ALL treatment has been effective, an important percentage of ALL patients are resilient to treatment. Therefore, there is an urgent need for testing a new combination of compounds for the treatment of this disease. Recently, combined TPEN and TPGS (T2 combo) have shown selective cytotoxic effects in vitro leukemia cells such as Jurkat, K562, and Ba/F3 cells. In this study, we aimed to test the effect of combined TPEN and TPGS agents (T2 combo) at a fixed dose (TPEN 5 mg/kg: TPGS 100 mg/kg) on leukemic Ba/F3-BCR-ABL P210 BALB-c mice model. We found that 4 successive 2-day apart intravenous injections of T2 combo showed a statistically significant reduction of Ba/F3 BCR-ABL leukemia cells (- 69%) in leukemia BALB/c mice (n = 6) compared to untreated leukemia group (n = 6). Moreover, the T2 combo was innocuous to non-leukemia BALB/c mice (n = 3) compared to untreated non-leukemia mice (control, n = 3). After treatments (day 42), all mice were left to rest until day 50. Outstandingly, the leukemia BALB/c mice treated with the T2 combo showed a lower percentage of Ba/F3-BCR-ABL P210 cells (- 84%) than untreated leukemia BALB/c mice. Furthermore, treatment of leukemia and non-leukemia mice with T2 combo showed no significant tissue alteration/damage according to the histopathological analysis of brain, heart, liver, kidney, and spleen samples; however, T2 combo significantly reduced the number of leukocytes in the bone marrow of treated leukemia mice. We conclude that the T2 combo specifically affects leukemia cells but no other tissue/organs. Therefore, we anticipate that the T2 combo might be a potential pro-oxidant combination for the treatment of leukemia patients.

Neem Oil or Almond Oil Nanoemulsions for Vitamin E Delivery: From Structural Evaluation to in vivo Assessment of Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activity

Purpose

Vitamin E (VitE) may be classified in "the first line of defense" against the formation of reactive oxygen species. Its inclusion in nanoemulsions (NEs) is a promising alternative to increase its bioavailability. The aim of this study was to compare O/W NEs including VitE based on Almond or Neem oil, showing themselves antioxidant properties. The potential synergy of the antioxidant activities of oils and vitamin E, co-formulated in NEs, was explored.

Patients and Methods

NEs have been prepared by sonication and deeply characterized evaluating size, ζ-potential, morphology (TEM and SAXS analyses), oil nanodroplet feature, and stability. Antioxidant activity has been evaluated in vitro, in non-tumorigenic HaCaT keratinocytes, and in vivo through fluorescence analysis of C. elegans transgenic strain. Moreover, on healthy human volunteers, skin tolerability and anti-inflammatory activity were evaluated by measuring the reduction of the skin erythema induced by the application of a skin chemical irritant (methyl-nicotinate).

Results

Results confirm that Vitamin E can be formulated in highly stable NEs showing good antioxidant activity on keratinocyte and on C. elegans. Interestingly, only Neem oil NEs showed some anti-inflammatory activity on healthy volunteers.

Conclusion

From the obtained results, Neem over Almond oil is a more appropriate candidate for further studies on this application.

The in vivo fate of polymeric micelles

This review aims to provide a systemic analysis of the in vivo, as well as subcellular, fate of polymeric micelles (PMs), starting from the entry of PMs into the body. Few PMs are able to cross the biological barriers intact and reach the circulation. In the blood, PMs demonstrate fairly good stability mainly owing to formation of protein corona despite controversial results reported by different groups. Although the exterior hydrophilic shells render PMs "long-circulating", the biodistribution of PMs into the mononuclear phagocyte systems (MPS) is dominant as compared with non-MPS organs and tissues. Evidence emerges to support that the copolymer poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(lactic acid) (PEG-PLA) is first broken down into pieces of PEG and PLA and then remnants to be eliminated from the body finally. At the cellular level, PMs tend to be internalized via endocytosis due to their particulate nature and disassembled and degraded within the cell. Recent findings on the effect of particle size, surface characteristics and shape are also reviewed. It is envisaged that unraveling the in vivo and subcellular fate sheds light on the performing mechanisms and gears up the clinical translation of PMs.