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Miller JT, Clark BW, Reid NM, Karchner SI, Roach JL, Hahn ME, Nacci D, Whitehead A. Independently evolved pollution resistance in four killifish populations is largely explained by few variants of large effect. Evol Appl 2024; 17:e13648. [PMID: 38293268 PMCID: PMC10824703 DOI: 10.1111/eva.13648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 02/01/2024] Open
Abstract
The genetic architecture of phenotypic traits can affect the mode and tempo of trait evolution. Human-altered environments can impose strong natural selection, where successful evolutionary adaptation requires swift and large phenotypic shifts. In these scenarios, theory predicts that adaptation is due to a few adaptive variants of large effect, but empirical studies that have revealed the genetic architecture of rapidly evolved phenotypes are rare, especially for populations inhabiting polluted environments. Fundulus killifish have repeatedly evolved adaptive resistance to extreme pollution in urban estuaries. Prior studies, including genome scans for signatures of natural selection, have revealed some of the genes and pathways important for evolved pollution resistance, and provide context for the genotype-phenotype association studies reported here. We created multiple quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping families using progenitors from four different resistant populations, and using RAD-seq genetically mapped variation in sensitivity (developmental perturbations) following embryonic exposure to a model toxicant PCB-126. We found that one to two large-effect QTL loci accounted for resistance to PCB-mediated developmental toxicity. QTLs harbored candidate genes that govern the regulation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) signaling. One QTL locus was shared across all populations and another was shared across three populations. One QTL locus showed strong signatures of recent natural selection in the corresponding wild population but another QTL locus did not. Some candidate genes for PCB resistance inferred from genome scans in wild populations were identified as QTL, but some key candidate genes were not. We conclude that rapidly evolved resistance to the developmental defects normally caused by PCB-126 is governed by few genes of large effect. However, other aspects of resistance beyond developmental phenotypes may be governed by additional loci, such that comprehensive resistance to PCB-126, and to the mixtures of chemicals that distinguish urban estuaries more broadly, may be more genetically complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey T. Miller
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Center for Population Biology, Coastal and Marine Sciences InstituteUniversity of California, DavisDavisCaliforniaUSA
- Present address:
Molecular, Cellular, and Biomedical SciencesUniversity of New HampshireDurhamNew HampshireUSA
| | - Bryan W. Clark
- Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, Atlantic Coastal Environmental Sciences DivisionUS Environmental Protection AgencyNarragansettRhode IslandUSA
| | - Noah M. Reid
- Department of Molecular & Cell BiologyUniversity of ConnecticutStorrsConnecticutUSA
| | - Sibel I. Karchner
- Biology DepartmentWoods Hole Oceanographic InstitutionWoods HoleMassachusettsUSA
| | - Jennifer L. Roach
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Center for Population Biology, Coastal and Marine Sciences InstituteUniversity of California, DavisDavisCaliforniaUSA
| | - Mark E. Hahn
- Biology DepartmentWoods Hole Oceanographic InstitutionWoods HoleMassachusettsUSA
| | - Diane Nacci
- Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, Atlantic Coastal Environmental Sciences DivisionUS Environmental Protection AgencyNarragansettRhode IslandUSA
| | - Andrew Whitehead
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Center for Population Biology, Coastal and Marine Sciences InstituteUniversity of California, DavisDavisCaliforniaUSA
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Miller JT, Clark BW, Reid NM, Karchner SI, Roach JL, Hahn ME, Nacci D, Whitehead A. Independently evolved pollution resistance in four killifish populations is largely explained by few variants of large effect. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.04.07.536079. [PMID: 37066319 PMCID: PMC10104127 DOI: 10.1101/2023.04.07.536079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/18/2023]
Abstract
The genetic architecture of phenotypic traits can affect the mode and tempo of trait evolution. Human-altered environments can impose strong natural selection, where successful evolutionary adaptation requires swift and large phenotypic shifts. In these scenarios, theory predicts the influence of few adaptive variants of large effect, but empirical studies that have revealed the genetic architecture of rapidly evolved phenotypes are rare, especially for populations inhabiting polluted environments. Fundulus killifish have repeatedly evolved adaptive resistance to extreme pollution in urban estuaries. Prior studies, including genome scans for signatures of natural selection, have revealed some of the genes and pathways important for evolved pollution resistance, and provide context for the genotype-phenotype association studies reported here. We created multiple quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping families using progenitors from four different resistant populations, and genetically mapped variation in sensitivity (developmental perturbations) following embryonic exposure to a model toxicant PCB-126. We found that a few large-effect QTL loci accounted for resistance to PCB-mediated developmental toxicity. QTLs harbored candidate genes that govern the regulation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) signaling, where some (but not all) of these QTL loci were shared across all populations, and some (but not all) of these loci showed signatures of recent natural selection in the corresponding wild population. Some strong candidate genes for PCB resistance inferred from genome scans in wild populations were identified as QTL, but some key candidate genes were not. We conclude that rapidly evolved resistance to the developmental defects normally caused by PCB-126 is governed by few genes of large effect. However, other aspects of resistance beyond developmental phenotypes may be governed by additional loci, such that comprehensive resistance to PCB-126, and to the mixtures of chemicals that distinguish urban estuaries more broadly, may be more genetically complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey T Miller
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Center for Population Biology, Coastal and Marine Sciences Institute, University of California, Davis, CA
| | - Bryan W Clark
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, Atlantic Coastal Environmental Sciences Division, Narragansett, RI
| | - Noah M Reid
- Department of Molecular & Cell Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT
| | - Sibel I Karchner
- Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA
| | - Jennifer L Roach
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Center for Population Biology, Coastal and Marine Sciences Institute, University of California, Davis, CA
| | - Mark E Hahn
- Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA
| | - Diane Nacci
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, Atlantic Coastal Environmental Sciences Division, Narragansett, RI
| | - Andrew Whitehead
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Center for Population Biology, Coastal and Marine Sciences Institute, University of California, Davis, CA
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Hamilton PB, Baynes A, Nicol E, Harris G, Uren Webster TM, Beresford N, Straszkiewicz M, Jobling S, Tyler CR. Feminizing effects of ethinylestradiol in roach (Rutilus rutilus) populations with different estrogenic pollution exposure histories. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2022; 249:106229. [PMID: 35753216 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2022.106229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Revised: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Experimental exposures aimed at assessing the risks posed by estrogens in waste-water treatment work (WwTW) effluents to fish populations have rarely considered whether populations differ in their sensitivity to estrogenic compounds. This is despite evidence that selection at genes involved in the estrogen response has occurred in wild populations, and evidence that genotype can influence estrogen-response. In this study we compare the effects of a two-year exposure to a low measured concentration (1.3 ng/L) of ethinylestradiol (EE2) on the sexual development of roach (Rutilus rutilus) whose parental generation was sampled from two river stretches heavily contaminated with WwTW effluent and from two without any known WwTW effluent contamination. Exposure to EE2 significantly reduced the proportion of genetic males and induced a range of feminized phenotypes in males. Significantly, exposure also increased the proportion of genetic females with vitellogenic oocytes from 51 to 96%, raising the possibility that estrogen pollution could impact populations of annually spawning fish species through advancing female reproduction by at least a year. However, there was no evidence that river origin affected sensitivity to estrogens in either sex. Thus, we conclude that chronic exposure to low level EE2 has reproductive health outcomes for both male and female roach, but we find no evidence that the nature or magnitude of the response is affected by the population origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick B Hamilton
- Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, EX4 4QD, UK; College of Medicine and Health, St Luke's Campus, Heavitree Road, Exeter, EX1 2LU.
| | - Alice Baynes
- Institute of Environment, Health and Societies, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, Middlesex, UB8 3PH, UK
| | - Elizabeth Nicol
- Institute of Environment, Health and Societies, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, Middlesex, UB8 3PH, UK
| | - Graham Harris
- Institute of Environment, Health and Societies, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, Middlesex, UB8 3PH, UK
| | - Tamsyn M Uren Webster
- Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, EX4 4QD, UK; Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Nicola Beresford
- Institute of Environment, Health and Societies, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, Middlesex, UB8 3PH, UK
| | - Marta Straszkiewicz
- Institute of Environment, Health and Societies, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, Middlesex, UB8 3PH, UK
| | - Susan Jobling
- Institute of Environment, Health and Societies, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, Middlesex, UB8 3PH, UK
| | - Charles R Tyler
- Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, EX4 4QD, UK
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Whitehead A, Clark BW, Reid NM, Hahn ME, Nacci D. When evolution is the solution to pollution: Key principles, and lessons from rapid repeated adaptation of killifish ( Fundulus heteroclitus) populations. Evol Appl 2017; 10:762-783. [PMID: 29151869 PMCID: PMC5680427 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 02/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
For most species, evolutionary adaptation is not expected to be sufficiently rapid to buffer the effects of human‐mediated environmental changes, including environmental pollution. Here we review how key features of populations, the characteristics of environmental pollution, and the genetic architecture underlying adaptive traits, may interact to shape the likelihood of evolutionary rescue from pollution. Large populations of Atlantic killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus) persist in some of the most contaminated estuaries of the United States, and killifish studies have provided some of the first insights into the types of genomic changes that enable rapid evolutionary rescue from complexly degraded environments. We describe how selection by industrial pollutants and other stressors has acted on multiple populations of killifish and posit that extreme nucleotide diversity uniquely positions this species for successful evolutionary adaptation. Mechanistic studies have identified some of the genetic underpinnings of adaptation to a well‐studied class of toxic pollutants; however, multiple genetic regions under selection in wild populations seem to reflect more complex responses to diverse native stressors and/or compensatory responses to primary adaptation. The discovery of these pollution‐adapted killifish populations suggests that the evolutionary influence of anthropogenic stressors as selective agents occurs widely. Yet adaptation to chemical pollution in terrestrial and aquatic vertebrate wildlife may rarely be a successful “solution to pollution” because potentially adaptive phenotypes may be complex and incur fitness costs, and therefore be unlikely to evolve quickly enough, especially in species with small population sizes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Whitehead
- Department of Environmental Toxicology University of California Davis Davis CA USA
| | - Bryan W Clark
- Atlantic Ecology Division National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory Office of Research and Development Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education US Environmental Protection Agency Narragansett RI USA
| | - Noah M Reid
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology University of Connecticut Storrs CT USA
| | - Mark E Hahn
- Department of Biology Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Woods Hole MA USA.,Superfund Research Program Boston University Boston MA USA
| | - Diane Nacci
- Atlantic Ecology Division National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory Office of Research and Development US Environmental Protection Agency Narragansett RI USA
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Uren Webster TM, Williams TD, Katsiadaki I, Lange A, Lewis C, Shears JA, Tyler CR, Santos EM. Hepatic transcriptional responses to copper in the three-spined stickleback are affected by their pollution exposure history. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2017; 184:26-36. [PMID: 28081447 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2016.12.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Revised: 12/05/2016] [Accepted: 12/28/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Some fish populations inhabiting contaminated environments show evidence of increased chemical tolerance, however the mechanisms contributing to this tolerance, and whether this is heritable, are poorly understood. We investigated the responses of two populations of wild three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) with different histories of contaminant exposure to an oestrogen and copper, two widespread aquatic pollutants. Male stickleback originating from two sites, the River Aire, with a history of complex pollution discharges, and Siblyback Lake, with a history of metal contamination, were depurated and then exposed to copper (46μg/L) and the synthetic oestrogen ethinyloestradiol (22ng/L). The hepatic transcriptomic response was compared between the two populations and to a reference population with no known history of exposure (Houghton Springs, Dorset). Gene responses included those typical for both copper and oestrogen, with no discernable difference in response to oestrogen between populations. There was, however, some difference in the magnitude of response to copper between populations. Siblyback fish showed an elevated baseline transcription of genes encoding metallothioneins and a lower level of metallothionein induction following copper exposure, compared to those from the River Aire. Similarly, a further experiment with an F1 generation of Siblyback fish bred in the laboratory found evidence for elevated transcription of genes encoding metallothioneins in unexposed fish, together with an altered transcriptional response to 125μg/L copper, compared with F1 fish originating from the clean reference population exposed to the same copper concentration. These data suggest that the stickleback from Siblyback Lake have a differential response to copper, which is inherited by the F1 generation in laboratory conditions, and for which the underlying mechanism may include an elevation of baseline transcription of genes encoding metallothioneins. The genetic and/or epigenetic mechanisms contributing to this inherited alteration of metallothionein transcription have yet to be established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamsyn M Uren Webster
- Biosciences, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK; Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK.
| | - Tim D Williams
- School of Biosciences, The University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Ioanna Katsiadaki
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Cefas Weymouth Laboratory, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK
| | - Anke Lange
- Biosciences, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK
| | - Ceri Lewis
- Biosciences, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK
| | - Janice A Shears
- Biosciences, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK
| | - Charles R Tyler
- Biosciences, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK
| | - Eduarda M Santos
- Biosciences, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK.
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Oziolor EM, Dubansky B, Burggren WW, Matson CW. Cross-resistance in Gulf killifish (Fundulus grandis) populations resistant to dioxin-like compounds. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2016; 175:222-231. [PMID: 27064400 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2016.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2016] [Revised: 03/18/2016] [Accepted: 03/21/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The Houston Ship Channel (HSC) in Houston, Texas is an aquatic environment with a long history of contamination, including polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDD), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and heavy metals. Populations of Gulf killifish (Fundulus grandis) from the HSC have adapted to resist developmental cardiac deformities caused by dioxin-like compounds (DLCs). Contaminants in the HSC have acted as a strong selective pressure on resident Gulf killifish populations. Rapid adaptation can lead to fitness costs, some as a direct result of the mechanisms involved in the adaptive process, whereas other adaptations may be more general. To explore potential fitness costs, we evaluated two Gulf killifish populations with documented resistance to DLC-induced cardiac teratogenesis (Patrick Bayou and Vince Bayou), and one previously characterized reference population (Gangs Bayou). We also characterized a previously unstudied population from Galveston Bay as an additional reference population (Smith Point). We tested the sensitivity of F1 larvae from these four populations to two classes of pesticides (pyrethroid (permethrin) and carbamate (carbaryl)) and two model pro-oxidants (tert-butyl hydroquinone (tBHQ) and tert-butyl hydroperoxide (tBOOH)). In addition, we explored their responses to hypoxia and measured resting metabolic rates (M.O2). Both adapted populations were cross-resistant to the toxicity of carbaryl and both pro-oxidants tested. There were no population differences in sensitivity to permethrin. On the other hand, one reference population (Gangs Bayou) was less sensitive to hypoxia, and maintained a lower M.O2 . However, there were no differences in hypoxia tolerance or resting metabolic rate between the second reference and the two adapted populations. This investigation emphasizes the importance of including multiple reference populations to clearly link fitness costs or cross-resistance to pollution adaptation, rather than to unrelated environmental or ecological differences. When compared to previous literature on adapted populations of Fundulus heteroclitus, we see a mixture of similarities and differences, suggesting that F. grandis adapted phenotypes likely involve multiple mechanisms, which may not be completely consistent among adapted populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elias M Oziolor
- Department of Environmental Science, Center for Reservoir and Aquatic Systems Research (CRASR) and the Institute for Biomedical Studies, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA
| | - Benjamin Dubansky
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA
| | - Warren W Burggren
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203, USA
| | - Cole W Matson
- Department of Environmental Science, Center for Reservoir and Aquatic Systems Research (CRASR) and the Institute for Biomedical Studies, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798, USA.
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Cotter KA, Nacci D, Champlin D, Chuprin J, Callard GV. Cloning of multiple ERα mRNA variants in killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus), and differential expression by tissue type, stage of reproduction, and estrogen exposure in fish from polluted and unpolluted environments. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2015; 159:184-197. [PMID: 25550165 PMCID: PMC4300264 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2014.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2014] [Revised: 12/11/2014] [Accepted: 12/12/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
To test the hypothesis that alternative splicing could be an adaptive mechanism for populations subject to multi-generational estrogenic exposures, we compared estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) splicing variants in two populations of killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus): one resident in an estrogenic polluted environment (New Bedford Harbor, NBH, MA, USA) and one from a relatively uncontaminated reference site (Scorton Creek, SC, MA, USA). In total we identified 19 ERα variants, each with deletions of one or more coding exons. Four of the variants with potential functional relevance were analyzed by qPCR to test for population differences in expression by tissue type, site, sex, seasonal reproductive status and estrogen treatment. Significantly, a 5'-truncated short form variant (ERαS) was highly expressed in liver and ovary, and was associated with seasonal reproductive activity in SC but not NBH fish. Both ERαS and the full-length long variant (ERαL) were estrogen-inducible (ERαS>ERαL) but the induction response was lower in NBH than in SC fish. In contrast, NBH killifish were hyper-responsive to estrogen as measured by expression of two other estrogen responsive genes: vitellogenin (Vtg) and aromatase B (AroB). Most strikingly, two ERα deletion variants (Δ6 and Δ6-8), lacking ligand binding and activation function domains, were identified in a subset of NBH fish, where they were associated with reduced responsiveness to estrogen treatment. Together, these results support the hypothesis that alternative splicing of the esr1 gene of killifish could be an autoregulatory mechanism by which estrogen modulates the differential expression of ERα, and suggests a novel and adaptive mechanistic response to xenoestrogenic exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kellie A Cotter
- Boston University Department of Biology, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Diane Nacci
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Atlantic Ecology Division, 27 Tarzwell Drive, Narragansett, RI 02882, USA
| | - Denise Champlin
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Atlantic Ecology Division, 27 Tarzwell Drive, Narragansett, RI 02882, USA
| | - Jane Chuprin
- Boston University Department of Biology, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Gloria V Callard
- Boston University Department of Biology, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
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Li C, Gowan S, Anil A, Beck BH, Thongda W, Kucuktas H, Kaltenboeck L, Peatman E. Discovery and validation of gene-linked diagnostic SNP markers for assessing hybridization between Largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) and Florida bass (M. floridanus). Mol Ecol Resour 2014; 15:395-404. [DOI: 10.1111/1755-0998.12308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2014] [Revised: 07/17/2014] [Accepted: 07/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chao Li
- School of Fisheries; Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences; Auburn University; Auburn AL 36849 USA
| | - Spencer Gowan
- School of Fisheries; Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences; Auburn University; Auburn AL 36849 USA
| | - Ammu Anil
- School of Fisheries; Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences; Auburn University; Auburn AL 36849 USA
| | - Benjamin H. Beck
- United States Department of Agriculture; Agricultural Research Service; Stuttgart National Aquaculture Research Center; Stuttgart AR 72160 USA
| | - Wilawan Thongda
- School of Fisheries; Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences; Auburn University; Auburn AL 36849 USA
| | - Huseyin Kucuktas
- School of Fisheries; Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences; Auburn University; Auburn AL 36849 USA
| | - Ludmilla Kaltenboeck
- School of Fisheries; Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences; Auburn University; Auburn AL 36849 USA
| | - Eric Peatman
- School of Fisheries; Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences; Auburn University; Auburn AL 36849 USA
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