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Mougabure-Cueto G, Hernández ML, Gilardoni JJ, Nattero J. Morphometric study of the legs of the main Chagas vector, Triatoma infestans (Hemiptera: Reduviidae). Acta Trop 2024; 255:107219. [PMID: 38649106 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2024.107219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2024] [Revised: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
In triatomines, vectors of Chagas disease, active dispersal takes place by walking and flying. Flight has received more attention than walking although the last is the dispersal modality used by nymphs due to their lack of wings and also used by adults, which would facilitate the colonization and reinfestation of houses after vector control actions. The present work studied the morphometrical variation of Triatoma infestans legs, the main vector of Chagas disease the Southern Cone of South America. We described morphometric traits and the natural variation of each leg segment. Different linear, size and shape variables of each component of the three right legs of fifth instar nymphs of T. infestans were analyzed using morphometric tools. We analyzed differentiation, variation and correlation for each segment across the fore-, mid and hind legs using different statistical approaches such as general linear model, canonical variates analysis, test of equality of coefficient of variation and partial least square analysis. We also analyzed variation and correlation between segments within each leg with partial least square and morphometric disparity analyses. Our results showed that the segments differed between legs, as general trends, the dimensions (length, width and/or size) were greater in the hind legs, smaller in the forelegs and intermediate in the mid ones. The femur and tibia (length and/or width) showed differences in morphometric variation between legs and the femur and tibia showed the highest levels of correlation between legs. On the other hand, in the fore- and mid legs, the femur (length or width) showed similar variation with tibia and tarsus lengths, but in the hind legs, the femur showed similar variation with all segments and not with the tibia length, and there were strong correlations between linear measurement within each leg. Our results suggest that the femur and tibia could play a determining role in the coordination between the legs that determines the walking pattern. Considering that these segments would also be linked to the specific function that each leg has, this study suggests a preponderant role of the femur and tibia in the walking locomotion of T. infestans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gastón Mougabure-Cueto
- Laboratorio de Fisiología de Insectos, Departamento Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental (DBBE), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires. Instituto de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental y Aplicada (IBBEA, UBA-CONICET). Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María Laura Hernández
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina; Unidad Operativa de Vectores y Ambiente (UnOVE), Administración Nacional de Laboratorios e Institutos de Salud "Dr. Carlos Malbrán, Centro Nacional de Diagnostico e Investigación en Endemo-Epidemias (CeNDIE), Cordoba, Argentina
| | - Juan José Gilardoni
- Laboratorio de Fisiología de Insectos, Departamento Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental (DBBE), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires. Instituto de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental y Aplicada (IBBEA, UBA-CONICET). Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Julieta Nattero
- Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Departamento de Ecología, Genética y Evolución. Laboratorio de Eco-Epidemiología. Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina; CONICET-Universidad de Buenos Aires. Instituto de Ecología, Genética y Evolución (CONICET-IEGEBA). Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Haustein M, Blanke A, Bockemühl T, Büschges A. A leg model based on anatomical landmarks to study 3D joint kinematics of walking in Drosophila melanogaster. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2024; 12:1357598. [PMID: 38988867 PMCID: PMC11233710 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2024.1357598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 07/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Walking is the most common form of how animals move on land. The model organism Drosophila melanogaster has become increasingly popular for studying how the nervous system controls behavior in general and walking in particular. Despite recent advances in tracking and modeling leg movements of walking Drosophila in 3D, there are still gaps in knowledge about the biomechanics of leg joints due to the tiny size of fruit flies. For instance, the natural alignment of joint rotational axes was largely neglected in previous kinematic analyses. In this study, we therefore present a detailed kinematic leg model in which not only the segment lengths but also the main rotational axes of the joints were derived from anatomical landmarks, namely, the joint condyles. Our model with natural oblique joint axes is able to adapt to the 3D leg postures of straight and forward walking fruit flies with high accuracy. When we compared our model to an orthogonalized version, we observed that our model showed a smaller error as well as differences in the used range of motion (ROM), highlighting the advantages of modeling natural rotational axes alignment for the study of joint kinematics. We further found that the kinematic profiles of front, middle, and hind legs differed in the number of required degrees of freedom as well as their contributions to stepping, time courses of joint angles, and ROM. Our findings provide deeper insights into the joint kinematics of walking in Drosophila, and, additionally, will help to develop dynamical, musculoskeletal, and neuromechanical simulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moritz Haustein
- Institute of Zoology, Biocenter Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Alexander Blanke
- Bonn Institute for Organismic Biology (BIOB), Animal Biodiversity, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Till Bockemühl
- Institute of Zoology, Biocenter Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Ansgar Büschges
- Institute of Zoology, Biocenter Cologne, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
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Zong L, Sun Z, Zhao J, Huang Z, Liu X, Jiang L, Li C, Muinde JM, Wu J, Wang X, Liang H, Liu H, Yang Y, Ge S. A self-locking mechanism of the frog-legged beetle Sagra femorata. INSECT SCIENCE 2024. [PMID: 38282236 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.13323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Revised: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2024]
Abstract
Insect legs play a crucial role in various modes of locomotion, including walking, jumping, swimming, and other forms of movement. The flexibility of their leg joints is critical in enabling various modes of locomotion. The frog-legged leaf beetle Sagra femorata possesses remarkably enlarged hind legs, which are considered to be a critical adaptation that enables the species to withstand external pressures. When confronted with external threats, S. femorata initiates a stress response by rapidly rotating its hind legs backward and upward to a specific angle, thereby potentially intimidating potential assailants. Based on video analysis, we identified 4 distinct phases of the hind leg rotation process in S. femorata, which were determined by the range of rotation angles (0°-168.77°). Utilizing micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) technology, we performed a 3-dimensional (3D) reconstruction and conducted relative positioning and volumetric analysis of the metacoxa and metatrochanter of S. femorata. Our analysis revealed that the metacoxa-trochanter joint is a "screw-nut" structure connected by 4 muscles, which regulate the rotation of the legs. Further testing using a 3D-printed model of the metacoxa-trochanter joint demonstrated its possession of a self-locking mechanism capable of securing the legs in specific positions to prevent excessive rotation and dislocation. It can be envisioned that this self-locking mechanism holds potential for application in bio-inspired robotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Le Zong
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- The Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Application, School of Life Science, Institute of Life Science and Green Development, Hebei University, Baoding, Hebei Province, China
| | - Zonghui Sun
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jieliang Zhao
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Zhengzhong Huang
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaokun Liu
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Lei Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Congqiao Li
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jacob Mulwa Muinde
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jianing Wu
- School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Xiaolong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Hongbin Liang
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Haoyu Liu
- The Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Application, School of Life Science, Institute of Life Science and Green Development, Hebei University, Baoding, Hebei Province, China
| | - Yuxia Yang
- The Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Application, School of Life Science, Institute of Life Science and Green Development, Hebei University, Baoding, Hebei Province, China
| | - Siqin Ge
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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Golding D, Rupp KL, Sustar A, Pratt B, Tuthill JC. Snow flies self-amputate freezing limbs to sustain behavior at sub-zero temperatures. Curr Biol 2023; 33:4549-4556.e3. [PMID: 37757830 PMCID: PMC10842534 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Revised: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
Temperature profoundly impacts all living creatures. In spite of the thermodynamic constraints on biology, some animals have evolved to live and move in extremely cold environments. Here, we investigate behavioral mechanisms of cold tolerance in the snow fly (Chionea spp.), a flightless crane fly that is active throughout the winter in boreal and alpine environments of the northern hemisphere. Using thermal imaging, we show that adult snow flies maintain the ability to walk down to an average body temperature of -7°C. At this supercooling limit, ice crystallization occurs within the snow fly's hemolymph and rapidly spreads throughout the body, resulting in death. However, we discovered that snow flies frequently survive freezing by rapidly amputating legs before ice crystallization can spread to their vital organs. Self-amputation of freezing limbs is a last-ditch tactic to prolong survival in frigid conditions that few animals can endure. Understanding the extreme physiology and behavior of snow insects holds particular significance at this moment when their alpine habitats are rapidly changing due to anthropogenic climate change. VIDEO ABSTRACT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominic Golding
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Katie L Rupp
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Anne Sustar
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Brandon Pratt
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - John C Tuthill
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
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Energy Efficiency of a Wheeled Bio-Inspired Hexapod Walking Robot in Sloping Terrain. ROBOTICS 2023. [DOI: 10.3390/robotics12020042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Multi-legged robots, such as hexapods, have great potential to navigate challenging terrain. However, their design and control are usually much more complex and energy-demanding compared to wheeled robots. This paper presents a wheeled six-legged robot with five degrees of freedom, that is able to move on a flat surface using wheels and switch to gait in rugged terrain, which reduces energy consumption. The novel joint configuration mimics the structure of insect limbs and allows our robot to overcome difficult terrain. The wheels reduce energy consumption when moving on flat terrain and the trochanter joint reduces energy consumption when moving on slopes, extending the operating time and range of the robot. The results of experiments on sloping terrain are presented. It was confirmed that the use of the trochanter joint can lead to a reduction in energy consumption when moving in sloping terrain.
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NeuroMechFly, a neuromechanical model of adult Drosophila melanogaster. Nat Methods 2022; 19:620-627. [PMID: 35545713 DOI: 10.1038/s41592-022-01466-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Animal behavior emerges from an interaction between neural network dynamics, musculoskeletal properties and the physical environment. Accessing and understanding the interplay between these elements requires the development of integrative and morphologically realistic neuromechanical simulations. Here we present NeuroMechFly, a data-driven model of the widely studied organism, Drosophila melanogaster. NeuroMechFly combines four independent computational modules: a physics-based simulation environment, a biomechanical exoskeleton, muscle models and neural network controllers. To enable use cases, we first define the minimum degrees of freedom of the leg from real three-dimensional kinematic measurements during walking and grooming. Then, we show how, by replaying these behaviors in the simulator, one can predict otherwise unmeasured torques and contact forces. Finally, we leverage NeuroMechFly's full neuromechanical capacity to discover neural networks and muscle parameters that drive locomotor gaits optimized for speed and stability. Thus, NeuroMechFly can increase our understanding of how behaviors emerge from interactions between complex neuromechanical systems and their physical surroundings.
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Karashchuk P, Rupp KL, Dickinson ES, Walling-Bell S, Sanders E, Azim E, Brunton BW, Tuthill JC. Anipose: A toolkit for robust markerless 3D pose estimation. Cell Rep 2021; 36:109730. [PMID: 34592148 PMCID: PMC8498918 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Revised: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Quantifying movement is critical for understanding animal behavior. Advances in computer vision now enable markerless tracking from 2D video, but most animals move in 3D. Here, we introduce Anipose, an open-source toolkit for robust markerless 3D pose estimation. Anipose is built on the 2D tracking method DeepLabCut, so users can expand their existing experimental setups to obtain accurate 3D tracking. It consists of four components: (1) a 3D calibration module, (2) filters to resolve 2D tracking errors, (3) a triangulation module that integrates temporal and spatial regularization, and (4) a pipeline to structure processing of large numbers of videos. We evaluate Anipose on a calibration board as well as mice, flies, and humans. By analyzing 3D leg kinematics tracked with Anipose, we identify a key role for joint rotation in motor control of fly walking. To help users get started with 3D tracking, we provide tutorials and documentation at http://anipose.org/.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Karashchuk
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Katie L. Rupp
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Evyn S. Dickinson
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Sarah Walling-Bell
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Elischa Sanders
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Eiman Azim
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Bingni W. Brunton
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA,Senior author,Correspondence: (B.W.B.), (J.C.T.)
| | - John C. Tuthill
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA,Senior author,Lead contact,Correspondence: (B.W.B.), (J.C.T.)
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8
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Weihmann T. Survey of biomechanical aspects of arthropod terrestrialisation - Substrate bound legged locomotion. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2020; 59:100983. [PMID: 33160205 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2020.100983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Arthropods are the most diverse clade on earth with regard to both species number and variability of body plans. Their general body plan is characterised by variable numbers of legs, and many-legged locomotion is an essential aspect of many aquatic and terrestrial arthropod species. Moreover, arthropods belong to the first groups of animals to colonise subaerial habitats, and they did so repeatedly and independently in a couple of clades. Those arthropod clades that colonised land habitats were equipped with highly variable body plans and locomotor apparatuses. Proceeding from their respective specific anatomies, they were challenged with strongly changing environmental conditions as well as altered physical and physiological constraints. This review explores the transitions from aquatic to terrestrial habitats across the different arthropod body plans and explains the major mechanisms and principles that constrain design and function of a range of locomotor apparatuses. Important aspects of movement physiology addressed here include the effects of different numbers of legs, different body sizes, miniaturisation and simplification of body plans and different ratios of inertial and damping forces. The article's focus is on continuous legged locomotion, but related ecological and behavioural aspects are also taken into account.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Weihmann
- Dept. of Animal Physiology, Institute of Zoology, University of Cologne, Zülpicher Strasse 47b, 50674, Cologne, Germany.
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Zill SN, Neff D, Chaudhry S, Exter A, Schmitz J, Büschges A. Effects of force detecting sense organs on muscle synergies are correlated with their response properties. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2017; 46:564-578. [PMID: 28552666 PMCID: PMC5817982 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2017.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2017] [Revised: 05/21/2017] [Accepted: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Sense organs that monitor forces in legs can contribute to activation of muscles as synergist groups. Previous studies in cockroaches and stick insects showed that campaniform sensilla, receptors that encode forces via exoskeletal strains, enhance muscle synergies in substrate grip. However synergist activation was mediated by different groups of receptors in cockroaches (trochanteral sensilla) and stick insects (femoral sensilla). The factors underlying the differential effects are unclear as the responses of femoral campaniform sensilla have not previously been characterized. The present study characterized the structure and response properties (via extracellular recording) of the femoral sensilla in both insects. The cockroach trochantero-femoral (TrF) joint is mobile and the joint membrane acts as an elastic antagonist to the reductor muscle. Cockroach femoral campaniform sensilla show weak discharges to forces in the coxo-trochanteral (CTr) joint plane (in which forces are generated by coxal muscles) but instead encode forces directed posteriorly (TrF joint plane). In stick insects, the TrF joint is fused and femoral campaniform sensilla discharge both to forces directed posteriorly and forces in the CTr joint plane. These findings support the idea that receptors that enhance synergies encode forces in the plane of action of leg muscles used in support and propulsion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sasha N Zill
- Department of Anatomy and Pathology, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, WV 25704, USA.
| | - David Neff
- Department of Anatomy and Pathology, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, WV 25704, USA
| | - Sumaiya Chaudhry
- Department of Anatomy and Pathology, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, WV 25704, USA
| | - Annelie Exter
- Department of Biological Cybernetics, University of Bielefeld, 33501 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Josef Schmitz
- Department of Biological Cybernetics, University of Bielefeld, 33501 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Ansgar Büschges
- Department of Animal Physiology, Institute of Zoology, Biocenter Cologne, University of Cologne, 50923 Cologne, Germany
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Zill SN, Chaudhry S, Büschges A, Schmitz J. Force feedback reinforces muscle synergies in insect legs. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2015; 44:541-553. [PMID: 26193626 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2015.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2015] [Accepted: 07/07/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The nervous system solves complex biomechanical problems by activating muscles in modular, synergist groups. We have studied how force feedback in substrate grip is integrated with effects of sense organs that monitor support and propulsion in insects. Campaniform sensilla are mechanoreceptors that encode forces as cuticular strains. We tested the hypothesis that integration of force feedback from receptors of different leg segments during grip occurs through activation of specific muscle synergies. We characterized the effects of campaniform sensilla of the feet (tarsi) and proximal segments (trochanter and femur) on activities of leg muscles in stick insects and cockroaches. In both species, mechanical stimulation of tarsal sensilla activated the leg muscle that generates substrate grip (retractor unguis), as well as proximal leg muscles that produce inward pull (tibial flexor) and support/propulsion (trochanteral depressor). Stimulation of campaniform sensilla on proximal leg segments activated the same synergistic group of muscles. In stick insects, the effects of proximal receptors on distal leg muscles changed and were greatly enhanced when animals made active searching movements. In insects, the task-specific reinforcement of muscle synergies can ensure that substrate adhesion is rapidly established after substrate contact to provide a stable point for force generation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sasha N Zill
- Department of Anatomy and Pathology, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, WV 25704, USA.
| | - Sumaiya Chaudhry
- Department of Anatomy and Pathology, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, WV 25704, USA
| | - Ansgar Büschges
- Department of Animal Physiology, Zoological Institute, Biocenter Cologne, University of Cologne, 50923 Cologne, Germany
| | - Josef Schmitz
- Department of Biological Cybernetics, University of Bielefeld, 33501 Bielefeld, Germany
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Zill SN, Schmitz J, Chaudhry S, Büschges A. Force encoding in stick insect legs delineates a reference frame for motor control. J Neurophysiol 2012; 108:1453-72. [PMID: 22673329 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00274.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The regulation of forces is integral to motor control. However, it is unclear how information from sense organs that detect forces at individual muscles or joints is incorporated into a frame of reference for motor control. Campaniform sensilla are receptors that monitor forces by cuticular strains. We studied how loads and muscle forces are encoded by trochanteral campaniform sensilla in stick insects. Forces were applied to the middle leg to emulate loading and/or muscle contractions. Selective sensory ablations limited activities recorded in the main leg nerve to specific receptor groups. The trochanteral campaniform sensilla consist of four discrete groups. We found that the dorsal groups (Groups 3 and 4) encoded force increases and decreases in the plane of movement of the coxo-trochanteral joint. Group 3 receptors discharged to increases in dorsal loading and decreases in ventral load. Group 4 showed the reverse directional sensitivities. Vigorous, directional responses also occurred to contractions of the trochanteral depressor muscle and to forces applied at the muscle insertion. All sensory discharges encoded the amplitude and rate of loading or muscle force. Stimulation of the receptors produced reflex effects in the depressor motoneurons that could reverse in sign during active movements. These data, in conjunction with findings of previous studies, support a model in which the trochanteral receptors function as an array that can detect forces in all directions relative to the intrinsic plane of leg movement. The array could provide requisite information about forces and simplify the control and adaptation of posture and walking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sasha N Zill
- Dept. of Anatomy and Pathology, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall Univ., Huntington, WV 25704, USA.
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13
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Bender JA, Simpson EM, Ritzmann RE. Computer-assisted 3D kinematic analysis of all leg joints in walking insects. PLoS One 2010; 5:e13617. [PMID: 21049024 PMCID: PMC2964314 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2010] [Accepted: 09/30/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
High-speed video can provide fine-scaled analysis of animal behavior. However, extracting behavioral data from video sequences is a time-consuming, tedious, subjective task. These issues are exacerbated where accurate behavioral descriptions require analysis of multiple points in three dimensions. We describe a new computer program written to assist a user in simultaneously extracting three-dimensional kinematics of multiple points on each of an insect's six legs. Digital video of a walking cockroach was collected in grayscale at 500 fps from two synchronized, calibrated cameras. We improved the legs' visibility by painting white dots on the joints, similar to techniques used for digitizing human motion. Compared to manual digitization of 26 points on the legs over a single, 8-second bout of walking (or 106,496 individual 3D points), our software achieved approximately 90% of the accuracy with 10% of the labor. Our experimental design reduced the complexity of the tracking problem by tethering the insect and allowing it to walk in place on a lightly oiled glass surface, but in principle, the algorithms implemented are extensible to free walking. Our software is free and open-source, written in the free language Python and including a graphical user interface for configuration and control. We encourage collaborative enhancements to make this tool both better and widely utilized.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A Bender
- Department of Biology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America.
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14
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Berry RP, Ibbotson MR. A three-dimensional atlas of the honeybee neck. PLoS One 2010; 5:e10771. [PMID: 20520729 PMCID: PMC2875396 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0010771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2010] [Accepted: 04/24/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Three-dimensional digital atlases are rapidly becoming indispensible in modern biology. We used serial sectioning combined with manual registration and segmentation of images to develop a comprehensive and detailed three-dimensional atlas of the honeybee head-neck system. This interactive atlas includes skeletal structures of the head and prothorax, the neck musculature, and the nervous system. The scope and resolution of the model exceeds atlases previously developed on similar sized animals, and the interactive nature of the model provides a far more accessible means of interpreting and comprehending insect anatomy and neuroanatomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard P. Berry
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Vision Science, Division of Biomedical Science and Biochemistry, School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Michael R. Ibbotson
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Vision Science, Division of Biomedical Science and Biochemistry, School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
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