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Chen L, Qu H, Guo M, Zhang Y, Cui Y, Yang Q, Bai R, Shi D. ANRIL and atherosclerosis. J Clin Pharm Ther 2019; 45:240-248. [PMID: 31703157 DOI: 10.1111/jcpt.13060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2018] [Revised: 01/26/2019] [Accepted: 09/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
WHAT IS KNOWN AND OBJECTIVE The 3.8-kb-long antisense non-coding RNA at the INK4 locus (ANRIL) is transcribed from the short arm of human chromosome 9 on P21 and is associated with malfunction of the vascular endothelium, vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation/migration/senescence/apoptosis, mononuclear cell adhesion and proliferation, glycolipid metabolism disorder and DNA damage. Hence, ANRIL plays an important role in atherogenesis. Moreover, genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified ANRIL as a biomarker that is closely related to coronary heart disease (CHD). The objective of this review was to discuss the pathological mechanism of ANRIL in atherosclerotic development and its significance as a predictor of cardiovascular disease. METHODS Review of the PubMed, EMBASE and Cochrane databases for articles demonstrating the roles of ANRIL in the development of atherosclerotic diseases. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The abnormal expression of ANRIL is linked to vascular endothelium injury; the proliferation, migration, senescence and apoptosis of VSMCs; mononuclear cell adhesion and proliferation; glycolipid metabolism disorder; DNA damage; and competing endogenous RNAs. Moreover, ANRIL accelerates the progression of CHD by regulating its single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). WHAT IS NEW AND CONCLUSION Considering that ANRIL accelerates atherosclerosis (AS) development and is a risk factor for CHD, it is reasonable for us to explore an efficacious ANRIL-based therapy for AS in CHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Chen
- Peking University Traditional Chinese Medicine Clinical Medical School (Xi yuan), Beijing, China
| | - Hua Qu
- Graduate School of China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ming Guo
- Cardiovascular Diseases Center, Xiyuan Hospital of China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ying Zhang
- Cardiovascular Diseases Center, Xiyuan Hospital of China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yuanyuan Cui
- Cardiovascular Diseases Center, Xiyuan Hospital of China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Qiaoning Yang
- Cardiovascular Diseases Center, Xiyuan Hospital of China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ruina Bai
- Cardiovascular Diseases Center, Xiyuan Hospital of China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Dazhuo Shi
- Cardiovascular Diseases Center, Xiyuan Hospital of China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
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The Light and Shadow of Senescence and Inflammation in Cardiovascular Pathology and Regenerative Medicine. Mediators Inflamm 2017; 2017:7953486. [PMID: 29118467 PMCID: PMC5651105 DOI: 10.1155/2017/7953486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2017] [Accepted: 09/12/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent epidemiologic studies evidence a dramatic increase of cardiovascular diseases, especially associated with the aging of the world population. During aging, the progressive impairment of the cardiovascular functions results from the compromised tissue abilities to protect the heart against stress. At the molecular level, in fact, a gradual weakening of the cellular processes regulating cardiovascular homeostasis occurs in aging cells. Atherosclerosis and heart failure are particularly correlated with aging-related cardiovascular senescence, that is, the inability of cells to progress in the mitotic program until completion of cytokinesis. In this review, we explore the intrinsic and extrinsic causes of cellular senescence and their role in the onset of these cardiovascular pathologies. Additionally, we dissect the effects of aging on the cardiac endogenous and exogenous reservoirs of stem cells. Finally, we offer an overview on the strategies of regenerative medicine that have been advanced in the quest for heart rejuvenation.
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Carrasco-Garcia E, Moreno M, Moreno-Cugnon L, Matheu A. Increased Arf/p53 activity in stem cells, aging and cancer. Aging Cell 2017; 16:219-225. [PMID: 28101907 PMCID: PMC5334536 DOI: 10.1111/acel.12574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Arf/p53 pathway protects the cells against DNA damage induced by acute stress. This characteristic is the responsible for its tumor suppressor activity. Moreover, it regulates the chronic type of stress associated with aging. This is the basis of its anti‐aging activity. Indeed, increased gene dosage of Arf/p53 displays elongated longevity and delayed aging. At a cellular level, it has been recently shown that increased dosage of Arf/p53 delays age‐associated stem cell exhaustion and the subsequent decline in tissue homeostasis and regeneration. However, p53 can also promote aging if constitutively activated. In this context, p53 reduces tissue regeneration, which correlates with premature exhaustion of stem cells. We discuss here the current evidence linking the Arf/p53 pathway to the processes of aging and cancer through stem cell regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Manuel Moreno
- Cellular Oncology Group; Biodonostia Institute; San Sebastian Spain
| | | | - Ander Matheu
- Cellular Oncology Group; Biodonostia Institute; San Sebastian Spain
- Ikerbasque; Basque Foundation; Bilbao Spain
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Abstract
Coronary artery disease (or coronary heart disease), is the leading cause of mortality in many of the developing as well as the developed countries of the world. Cholesterol-enriched plaques in the heart's blood vessels combined with inflammation lead to the lesion expansion, narrowing of blood vessels, reduced blood flow, and may subsequently cause lesion rupture and a heart attack. Even though several environmental risk factors have been established, such as high LDL-cholesterol, diabetes, and high blood pressure, the underlying genetic composition may substantially modify the disease risk; hence, genome composition and gene-environment interactions may be critical for disease progression. Ongoing scientific efforts have seen substantial advancements related to the fields of genetics and genomics, with the major breakthroughs yet to come. As genomics is the most rapidly advancing field in the life sciences, it is important to present a comprehensive overview of current efforts. Here, we present a summary of various genetic and genomics assays and approaches applied to coronary artery disease research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milos Pjanic
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305-5233, USA
| | - Clint L Miller
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305-5233, USA
| | - Robert Wirka
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305-5233, USA
| | - Juyong B Kim
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305-5233, USA
| | - Daniel M DiRenzo
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305-5233, USA
| | - Thomas Quertermous
- Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Cardiovascular Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Drive, Stanford, CA, 94305-5233, USA.
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Hannou SA, Wouters K, Paumelle R, Staels B. Functional genomics of the CDKN2A/B locus in cardiovascular and metabolic disease: what have we learned from GWASs? Trends Endocrinol Metab 2015; 26:176-84. [PMID: 25744911 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2015.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Revised: 01/27/2015] [Accepted: 01/27/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Genome-wide association studies (GWASs) provide an unprecedented opportunity to examine, on a large scale, the association of common genetic variants with complex diseases like type 2 diabetes (T2D) and cardiovascular disease (CVD), thus allowing the identification of new potential disease loci. Using this approach, numerous studies have associated SNPs on chromosome 9p21.3 situated near the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2A/B (CDKN2A/B) locus with the risk for coronary artery disease (CAD) and T2D. However, identifying the function of the nearby gene products (CDKN2A/B and ANRIL) in the pathophysiology of these conditions requires functional genomic studies. We review the current knowledge, from studies using human and mouse models, describing the function of CDKN2A/B gene products, which may mechanistically link the 9p21.3 risk locus with CVD and diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Anissa Hannou
- University of Lille, F-59000, Lille, France; Inserm, U1011, F-59000, Lille, France; European Genomic Institute for Diabetes (EGID), FR3508, Lille, France; Institut Pasteur de Lille, F-59019, Lille, France; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), UMR 8199, Lille, France
| | - Kristiaan Wouters
- Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), Department of Internal Medicine, Maastricht University Medical Center (MUMC), Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Réjane Paumelle
- University of Lille, F-59000, Lille, France; Inserm, U1011, F-59000, Lille, France; European Genomic Institute for Diabetes (EGID), FR3508, Lille, France; Institut Pasteur de Lille, F-59019, Lille, France
| | - Bart Staels
- University of Lille, F-59000, Lille, France; Inserm, U1011, F-59000, Lille, France; European Genomic Institute for Diabetes (EGID), FR3508, Lille, France; Institut Pasteur de Lille, F-59019, Lille, France.
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Abstract
The latest genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have re-energized our effort to understand the genetic basis of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Although the knowledge generated by GWAS has confirmed that mediators of inflammation and perturbed lipid metabolism are major players in cardiovascular disease (CVD) development, much of individual disease heritability remains unexplained by the variants identified through GWAS. Moreover, results from interventions that aim at the pharmaceutical modification of lipid parameters fall short of expectation. These elusive treatment goals based on heritability studies highlight a key supportive, and perhaps even primary, role of nutritional therapy to achieve better health outcomes. Nonetheless, effective and specific interventions for CVD prevention using principles of "personalized" nutrition require a better knowledge of gene-diet interactions, an area that remains poorly explored. Dietary fatty acids such as omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are an excellent example of a widely studied "environment" that interacts with the genetic makeup in relation to CVD. A thorough exploration of the nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics of omega-3 PUFAs is key to understanding the etiology, and developing effective preventive measures. In this review, we will summarize the current state of knowledge of genetic interactions with omega-3 PUFAs in modulating lipid metabolism and inflammation, and defining health outcomes. Nutrigenetics and nutrigenomics are still in their infancy with respect to CVD prediction and therapy. Integration of the progress in the omics, including metabolomics, lipidomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics, coupled with advances in nutrigenomic and nutrigenetic research will move us towards personalized medicine as the ultimate paradigm of responsible clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aksam J Merched
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.
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Abstract
p16(INK4a), located on chromosome 9p21.3, is lost among a cluster of neighboring tumor suppressor genes. Although it is classically known for its capacity to inhibit cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) activity, p16(INK4a) is not just a one-trick pony. Long-term p16(INK4a) expression pushes cells to enter senescence, an irreversible cell-cycle arrest that precludes the growth of would-be cancer cells but also contributes to cellular aging. Importantly, loss of p16(INK4a) is one of the most frequent events in human tumors and allows precancerous lesions to bypass senescence. Therefore, precise regulation of p16(INK4a) is essential to tissue homeostasis, maintaining a coordinated balance between tumor suppression and aging. This review outlines the molecular pathways critical for proper p16(INK4a) regulation and emphasizes the indispensable functions of p16(INK4a) in cancer, aging, and human physiology that make this gene special.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle M LaPak
- Biomedical Research Tower, Rm 586, The Ohio State University, 460 W. 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210.
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Since 2007, genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have led to the identification of numerous loci of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. The majority of these loci harbor genes previously not known to be involved in atherogenesis. In this review, we summarize the recent progress in understanding the pathophysiology of genetic variants in atherosclerosis. RECENT FINDINGS Fifty-eight loci with P < 10⁻⁷ have been identified in GWAS for coronary heart disease and myocardial infarction. Of these, 23 loci (40%) overlap with GWAS loci of classical risk factors such as lipids, blood pressure, and diabetes mellitus, suggesting a potential causal relation. The vast majority of the remaining 35 loci (60%) are at genomic regions where the mechanism in atherogenesis is unclear. Loci most frequently found in independent GWAS were at Chr9p21.3 (ANRIL/CDKN2B-AS1), Chr6p24.1 (PHACTR1), and Chr1p13.3 (CELSR2, PSRC1, MYBPHL, SORT1). Recent work suggests that Chr9p21.3 exerts its effects through epigenetic regulation of target genes, whereas mechanisms at Chr6p24.1 remain obscure, and Chr1p13.3 affects plasma LDL cholesterol. SUMMARY Novel GWAS loci indicate that our understanding of atherosclerosis is limited and implicate a role of hitherto unknown mechanisms, such as epigenetic gene regulation in atherogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lesca M Holdt
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospital Munich-LMU and Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
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Holdt LM, Hoffmann S, Sass K, Langenberger D, Scholz M, Krohn K, Finstermeier K, Stahringer A, Wilfert W, Beutner F, Gielen S, Schuler G, Gäbel G, Bergert H, Bechmann I, Stadler PF, Thiery J, Teupser D. Alu elements in ANRIL non-coding RNA at chromosome 9p21 modulate atherogenic cell functions through trans-regulation of gene networks. PLoS Genet 2013; 9:e1003588. [PMID: 23861667 PMCID: PMC3701717 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1003588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 287] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2013] [Accepted: 05/09/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The chromosome 9p21 (Chr9p21) locus of coronary artery disease has been identified in the first surge of genome-wide association and is the strongest genetic factor of atherosclerosis known today. Chr9p21 encodes the long non-coding RNA (ncRNA) antisense non-coding RNA in the INK4 locus (ANRIL). ANRIL expression is associated with the Chr9p21 genotype and correlated with atherosclerosis severity. Here, we report on the molecular mechanisms through which ANRIL regulates target-genes in trans, leading to increased cell proliferation, increased cell adhesion and decreased apoptosis, which are all essential mechanisms of atherogenesis. Importantly, trans-regulation was dependent on Alu motifs, which marked the promoters of ANRIL target genes and were mirrored in ANRIL RNA transcripts. ANRIL bound Polycomb group proteins that were highly enriched in the proximity of Alu motifs across the genome and were recruited to promoters of target genes upon ANRIL over-expression. The functional relevance of Alu motifs in ANRIL was confirmed by deletion and mutagenesis, reversing trans-regulation and atherogenic cell functions. ANRIL-regulated networks were confirmed in 2280 individuals with and without coronary artery disease and functionally validated in primary cells from patients carrying the Chr9p21 risk allele. Our study provides a molecular mechanism for pro-atherogenic effects of ANRIL at Chr9p21 and suggests a novel role for Alu elements in epigenetic gene regulation by long ncRNAs. Chromosome 9p21 is the strongest genetic factor for coronary artery disease and encodes the long non-coding RNA (ncRNA) ANRIL. Here, we show that increased ANRIL expression mediates atherosclerosis risk through trans-regulation of gene networks leading to pro-atherogenic cellular properties, such as increased proliferation and adhesion. ANRIL may act as a scaffold, guiding effector-proteins to chromatin. These functions depend on an Alu motif present in ANRIL RNA and mirrored several thousand-fold in the genome. Alu elements are a family of primate-specific short interspersed repeat elements (SINEs) and have been linked with genetic disease. Current models propose that either exonisation of Alu elements or changes of cis-regulation of adjacent genes are the underlying disease mechanisms. Our work extends the function of Alu transposons to regulatory components of long ncRNAs with a central role in epigenetic trans-regulation. Furthermore, it implies a pivotal role for Alu elements in genetically determined vascular disease and describes a plausible molecular mechanism for a pro-atherogenic function of ANRIL at chromosome 9p21.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lesca M. Holdt
- LIFE – Leipzig Research Center for Civilization Diseases, Universität Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics, University Hospital Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Steve Hoffmann
- LIFE – Leipzig Research Center for Civilization Diseases, Universität Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Transcriptome Bioinformatics Group and Interdisciplinary Centre for Bioinformatics, University Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Kristina Sass
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics, University Hospital Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - David Langenberger
- LIFE – Leipzig Research Center for Civilization Diseases, Universität Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Transcriptome Bioinformatics Group and Interdisciplinary Centre for Bioinformatics, University Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Markus Scholz
- LIFE – Leipzig Research Center for Civilization Diseases, Universität Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Institute for Medical Informatics, Statistics and Epidemiology, University Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Knut Krohn
- LIFE – Leipzig Research Center for Civilization Diseases, Universität Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Interdisciplinary Center for Clinical Research, University Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Knut Finstermeier
- LIFE – Leipzig Research Center for Civilization Diseases, Universität Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics, University Hospital Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Anika Stahringer
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics, University Hospital Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Wilfert
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics, University Hospital Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Frank Beutner
- LIFE – Leipzig Research Center for Civilization Diseases, Universität Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics, University Hospital Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Internal Medicine/Cardiology, Heart Center, University Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Stephan Gielen
- LIFE – Leipzig Research Center for Civilization Diseases, Universität Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Internal Medicine/Cardiology, Heart Center, University Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Gerhard Schuler
- LIFE – Leipzig Research Center for Civilization Diseases, Universität Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Internal Medicine/Cardiology, Heart Center, University Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Gabor Gäbel
- Department of General, Thoracic, and Vascular Surgery, University Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Hendrik Bergert
- Department of General, Thoracic, and Vascular Surgery, University Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Ingo Bechmann
- Institute of Anatomy, University Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Peter F. Stadler
- LIFE – Leipzig Research Center for Civilization Diseases, Universität Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Transcriptome Bioinformatics Group and Interdisciplinary Centre for Bioinformatics, University Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Mathematics in the Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
- Santa Fe Institute, Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States of America
| | - Joachim Thiery
- LIFE – Leipzig Research Center for Civilization Diseases, Universität Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics, University Hospital Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Daniel Teupser
- LIFE – Leipzig Research Center for Civilization Diseases, Universität Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics, University Hospital Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Munich, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Current world literature. Curr Opin Cardiol 2012; 27:682-95. [PMID: 23075824 DOI: 10.1097/hco.0b013e32835a0ad8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Kim JB, Deluna A, Mungrue IN, Vu C, Pouldar D, Civelek M, Orozco L, Wu J, Wang X, Charugundla S, Castellani LW, Rusek M, Jakubowski H, Jakobowski H, Lusis AJ. Effect of 9p21.3 coronary artery disease locus neighboring genes on atherosclerosis in mice. Circulation 2012; 126:1896-906. [PMID: 22952318 DOI: 10.1161/circulationaha.111.064881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The human 9p21.3 chromosome locus has been shown to be an independent risk factor for atherosclerosis in multiple large-scale genome-wide association studies, but the underlying mechanism remains unknown. We set out to investigate the potential role of the 9p21.3 locus neighboring genes, including Mtap, the 2 isoforms of Cdkn2a, p16Ink4a and p19Arf, and Cdkn2b, in atherosclerosis using knockout mice models. METHODS AND RESULTS Gene-targeted mice for neighboring genes, including Mtap, Cdkn2a, p19Arf, and Cdkn2b, were each bred to mice carrying the human APO*E3 Leiden transgene that sensitizes the mice for atherosclerotic lesions through elevated plasma cholesterol. We found that the mice heterozygous for Mtap developed larger lesions compared with wild-type mice (49623±21650 versus 18899±9604 μm(2) per section [mean±SD]; P=0.01), with morphology similar to that of wild-type mice. The Mtap heterozygous mice demonstrated changes in metabolic and methylation profiles and CD4(+) cell counts. The Cdkn2a knockout mice had smaller lesions compared with wild-type and heterozygous mice, and there were no significant differences in lesion size in p19Arf and Cdkn2b mutants compared with wild type. We observed extensive, tissue-specific compensatory regulation of the Cdkn2a and Cdkn2b genes among the various knockout mice, making the effects on atherosclerosis difficult to interpret. CONCLUSIONS Mtap plays a protective role against atherosclerosis, whereas Cdkn2a appears to be modestly proatherogenic. However, no relation was found between the 9p21 genotype and the transcription of 9p21 neighboring genes in primary human aortic vascular cells in vitro. There is extensive compensatory regulation in the highly conserved 9p21 orthologous region in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juyong Brian Kim
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1679, USA
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