MicroRNA-132 targeting PTEN contributes to cilostazol-promoted vascular smooth muscle cell differentiation

Non-coding RNAs to treat vascular smooth muscle cell dysfunction

Vascular smooth muscle cell (vSMC) dysfunction is a critical contributor to cardiovascular diseases, including atherosclerosis, restenosis and vein graft failure. Recent advances have unveiled a fascinating range of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) that play a pivotal role in regulating vSMC function. This review aims to provide an in-depth analysis of the mechanisms underlying vSMC dysfunction and the therapeutic potential of various ncRNAs in mitigating this dysfunction, either preventing or reversing it. We explore the intricate interplay of microRNAs, long-non-coding RNAs and circular RNAs, shedding light on their roles in regulating key signalling pathways associated with vSMC dysfunction. We also discuss the prospects and challenges associated with developing ncRNA-based therapies for this prevalent type of cardiovascular pathology. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed issue Non-coding RNA Therapeutics. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v182.2/issuetoc.

Empagliflozin Attenuates Neointima Formation After Arterial Injury and Inhibits Smooth Muscle Cell Proliferation and Migration by Suppressing Platelet-Derived Growth Factor-Related Signaling

BACKGROUND

Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors reduce cardiovascular events. However, the precise mechanisms beyond glycemic control are not fully understood. The objective of this study was to determine the role of PDGF (platelet-derived growth factor)-related signaling in empagliflozin-mediated inhibition of neointima formation.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Adult male nondiabetic Wistar rats were subjected to carotid artery balloon injury. Empagliflozin (30 mg/kg per day) was administered by oral gavage for 18 days beginning 4 days before surgery. The in vitro effects of empagliflozin on rat aortic vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation and migration were also determined. Empagliflozin attenuated balloon injury-induced neointima formation in carotid arteries. In VSMCs, empagliflozin attenuated PDGF-BB-induced proliferation and migration. Moreover, empagliflozin-treated VSMCs did not undergo apoptosis or cytotoxic death. Empagliflozin suppressed PDGF-related signaling, including phosphorylation of PDGF receptor β, Akt, and STAT3 (signal transducer and activator of transcription 3). Overactivation of PDGF signaling attenuated empagliflozin-mediated inhibition of VSMC function. SGLT2 mRNA levels in rat VSMCs were undetectable, and SGLT2 silencing did not alter the empagliflozin-mediated effects, supporting the SGLT2-independent effects of empagliflozin on VSMC.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights the crucial role of suppressing PDGF-related signaling in mediating the beneficial effects of empagliflozin on neointima formation and VSMC function, which are independent of SGLT2 and glycemic control. Our study provides a novel mechanistic aspect of empagliflozin for the prevention of vascular stenosis disorders.

LncRNA RP11-301G19.1 is required for the maintenance of vascular smooth muscle cell contractile phenotype via sponging miR-17-5P/ATOH8 axis

Long noncoding RNAs (LncRNAs) play essential roles in regulating gene expression in various biological processes. However, the function of lncRNAs in vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) transformation remains to be explained. In this work, we discover that a new bone marrow protein (BMP) signaling target, lncRNA RP11-301G19.1, is significantly induced in BMP7-treated VSMCs through lncRNA microarray analysis. Addition of BMP signaling inhibitor LDN-193189 attenuates the expression of ACTA2 and SM-22α, as well as the mRNA level of RP11-301G19.1. Furthermore, lncRNA RP11-301G19.1 is critical to the VSMC differentiation and is directly activated by SMAD1/9. Mechanistically, knocking down of RP11-301G19.1 leads to the decrease of ATOH8, another BMP target, while the forced expression of RP11-301G19.1 reactivates ATOH8. In addition, miR-17-5p, a miRNA negatively regulated by BMP-7, contains predicted binding sites for lncRNA RP11-301G19.1 and ATOH8 3'UTR. Accordingly, overexpression of miR-17-5p decreases the levels of them. Together, our results revealed the role of lncRNA RP11-301G19.1 as a miRNA sponge to upregulate ATOH8 in VSMC phenotype transformation.

Role of EZH2-mediated epigenetic modification on vascular smooth muscle in cardiovascular diseases: A mini-review

Vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) are integral to the pathophysiology of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2), a histone methyltransferase, plays a crucial role in epigenetic regulation of VSMCs gene expression. Emerging researches suggest that EZH2 has a dual role in VSMCs, contingent on the pathological context of specific CVDs. This mini-review synthesizes the current knowledge on the mechanisms by which EZH2 regulates VSMC proliferation, migration and survival in the context of CVDs. The goal is to underscore the potential of EZH2 as a therapeutic target for CVDs treatment. Modulating EZH2 and its associated epigenetic pathways in VSMCs could potentially ameliorate vascular remodeling, a key factor in the progression of many CVDs. Despite the promising outlook, further investigation is warranted to elucidate the epigenetic mechanisms mediated by EZH2 in VSMCs, which may pave the way for novel epigenetic therapies for conditions such as atherosclerosis and hypertension.

MicroRNA regulation of phenotypic transformations in vascular smooth muscle: relevance to vascular remodeling

Alterations in the vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) phenotype play a critical role in the pathogenesis of several cardiovascular diseases, including hypertension, atherosclerosis, and restenosis after angioplasty. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of endogenous noncoding RNAs (approximately 19-25 nucleotides in length) that function as regulators in various physiological and pathophysiological events. Recent studies have suggested that aberrant miRNAs' expression might underlie VSMC phenotypic transformation, appearing to regulate the phenotypic transformations of VSMCs by targeting specific genes that either participate in the maintenance of the contractile phenotype or contribute to the transformation to alternate phenotypes, and affecting atherosclerosis, hypertension, and coronary artery disease by altering VSMC proliferation, migration, differentiation, inflammation, calcification, oxidative stress, and apoptosis, suggesting an important regulatory role in vascular remodeling for maintaining vascular homeostasis. This review outlines recent progress in the discovery of miRNAs and elucidation of their mechanisms of action and functions in VSMC phenotypic regulation. Importantly, as the literature supports roles for miRNAs in modulating vascular remodeling and for maintaining vascular homeostasis, this area of research will likely provide new insights into clinical diagnosis and prognosis and ultimately facilitate the identification of novel therapeutic targets.

The Etiology and Molecular Mechanism Underlying Smooth Muscle Phenotype Switching in Intimal Hyperplasia of Vein Graft and the Regulatory Role of microRNAs

Mounting evidence suggests that the phenotypic transformation of venous smooth muscle cells (SMCs) from differentiated (contractile) to dedifferentiated (proliferative and migratory) phenotypes causes excessive proliferation and further migration to the intima leading to intimal hyperplasia, which represents one of the key pathophysiological mechanisms of vein graft restenosis. In recent years, numerous miRNAs have been identified as specific phenotypic regulators of vascular SMCs (VSMCs), which play a vital role in intimal hyperplasia in vein grafts. The review sought to provide a comprehensive overview of the etiology of intimal hyperplasia, factors affecting the phenotypic transformation of VSMCs in vein graft, and molecular mechanisms of miRNAs involved in SMCs phenotypic modulation in intimal hyperplasia of vein graft reported in recent years.

miR-132-3p participates in the pathological mechanism of temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis by targeting PTEN

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the role of miR-132-3p in the progression of temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis (TMJOA) and its potential pathological mechanism.

DESIGN

A TMJOA model was established using six rats via the unilateral anterior crossbite method. The differential expression of miR-132-3p in the TMJOA (n = 6) and control groups (n = 6) was detected via miRNA sequencing and verified via PCR. The chondrocytes in the condylar cartilage of the temporomandibular joint were cultured and stimulated with IL-1β to simulate TMJOA in vitro. The changes in the proliferation, apoptosis, inflammation and extracellular matrix of these chondrocytes were detected after the upregulation of miR-132-3p expression. The targeted relationship of miR-132-3p and PTEN in TMJOA was verified, and rescue experiments were conducted via co-upregulation of the expression of both miR-132-3p and PTEN.

RESULTS

Compared with that in the control group, miR-132-3p expression was lower in the cartilage tissues of TMJOA rats and IL-1β-induced TMJ chondrocytes. After upregulating the expression of miR-132-3p, the cell proliferation activity and expression levels of aggrecan and type II collagen of IL-1β-induced TMJ chondrocytes were increased, and the apoptosis rate and levels of inflammatory factors were decreased. miR-132-3p can regulate PTEN expression in a targeted manner, and upregulating PTEN expression could reverse the influences of the upregulation of miR-132-3p expression on TMJOA cells.

CONCLUSION

miR-132-3p is less expressed in TMJOA, and it regulates the proliferation, extracellular matrix, and inflammatory response of TMJOA chondrocytes and participates in TMJOA progression by targeting PTEN.

Advances in miR-132-Based Biomarker and Therapeutic Potential in the Cardiovascular System

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and subsequent heart failure threaten global health and impose a huge economic burden on society. MicroRNA-132 (miR-132), a regulatory RNA ubiquitously expressed in the cardiovascular system, is up-or down-regulated in the plasma under various cardiac conditions and may serve as a potential diagnostic or prognostic biomarker. More importantly, miR-132 in the myocardium has been demonstrated to be a master regulator in many pathological processes of ischemic or nonischemic heart failure in the past decade, such as myocardial hypertrophy, fibrosis, apoptosis, angiogenesis, calcium handling, neuroendocrine activation, and oxidative stress, through downregulating target mRNA expression. Preclinical and clinical phase 1b studies have suggested antisense oligonucleotide targeting miR-132 may be a potential therapeutic approach for ischemic or nonischemic heart failure in the future. This review aims to summarize recent advances in the physiological and pathological functions of miR-132 and its possible diagnostic and therapeutic potential in cardiovascular disease.

The antagonistic effects and mechanisms of microRNA-26a action in hypertensive vascular remodelling

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Hypertensive vascular remodelling is responsible for end-organ damage and is the result of increased extracellular matrix accumulation and excessive vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation. MicroRNA-26a (miR-26a), a non-coding small RNA, is involved in several cardiovascular diseases. We aimed to validate the effect and mechanisms of miR-26a in hypertensive vascular remodelling.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Male spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) were injected intravenously with recombinant adeno-associated virus-miR-26a. Samples of thoracic aorta were examined histologically with H&E staining. In vitro, angiotensin II (AngII)-induced VSMCs cultured from thoracic aortae of female Sprague-Dawley rats, were transfected with miR-26a mimic or inhibitor. Western blots, qRT-PCR and immunohistological methods were used, along with chromatin-immunoprecipitation and luciferase reporter assays. Specific siRNAs were used to silence Smad production in VSMCs KEY RESULTS: Levels of miR-26a were lower in the thoracic aorta and plasma of SHRs than in WKY rats. Overexpression of miR-26a inhibited extracellular matrix deposition by targeting connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) and decreased VSMC proliferation by regulating the enhancer of zeste homologue 2 (EZH2)/p21 pathway both in vitro and in vivo. AngII-mediated Smad3 activation suppressed miR-26a expression, which in turn promoted Smad3 activation via targeted regulation of Smad4, leading to further down-regulation of miR-26a.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Our data show that AngII stimulated a Smads/miR-26a positive feedback loop, which further reduced expression of miR-26a, leading to collagen production and VSMC proliferation and consequently vascular remodelling. MiR-26a has an antagonistic effect on hypertensive vascular remodelling and can be a strategy for treating hypertensive vascular remodelling.

The lncRNA GAS5 Inhibits the Osteogenic Differentiation and Calcification of Human Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells

Vascular calcification (VC), which is associated with high cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in patients with chronic kidney disease, is promoted by the osteoblastic differentiation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). The present study explored the functional roles and molecular mechanisms of the long noncoding RNA growth arrest-specific transcript 5 (GAS5) in VC. Our results indicated that GAS5 was clearly downregulated in calcified human aortic vascular smooth muscle cells (HASMCs). Functionally, we found that overexpression of GAS5 significantly attenuated the osteogenic differentiation and calcification of HASMCs induced by high levels of phosphorus. Moreover, miR-26-5p was identified to potentially bind to GAS5, and phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) was determined to be a direct target of miR-26b-5p in HASMCs. Mechanistically, enforced expression of miR-26-5p significantly attenuated PTEN protein expression in HASMCs. Rescue experiments demonstrated that cotransfection of HASMCs with miR-26-5p mimics reduced the inhibition of Lv-GAS5 on osteogenic differentiation and calcification. As a result, GAS5 was confirmed to be an miR-26b-5p sponge and to thereby increase the expression of PTEN in HASMCs. In ex vivo models, GAS5 was significantly downregulated and its expression inversely related to the expression of miR-26b-5 and positively associated with the expression of PTEN in calcified aortic rings induced by high levels of phosphorus. Together, these results suggest that the GAS5/miR-26-5p/PTEN axis could serve as a potential therapeutic target for VC in patients with chronic kidney disease.

How microRNAs affect the PD-L1 and its synthetic pathway in cancer

Programmed cell death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) is a glycoprotein that is expressed on the cell surface of both hematopoietic and nonhematopoietic cells. PD-L1 play a role in the immune tolerance and protect self-tissues from immune system attack. Dysfunction of this molecule has been highlighted in the pathogenesis of tumors, autoimmunity, and infectious disorders. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are endogenous molecules that are classified as small non-coding RNA with approximately 20-22 nucleotides (nt) length. The function of miRNAs is based on complementary interactions with target mRNA via matching completely or incompletely. The result of this function is decay of the target mRNA or preventing mRNA translation. In the past decades, several miRNAs have been discovered which play an important role in the regulation of PD-L1 in various malignancies. In this review, we discuss the effect of miRNAs on PD-L1 expression and consider the effect of miRNAs on the synthetic pathway of PD-L1, especially during cancers.

Downregulation of miR-542-3p promotes osteogenic transition of vascular smooth muscle cells in the aging rat by targeting BMP7

Background

Aging is believed to have a close association with cardiovascular diseases, resulting in various pathological alterations in blood vessels, including vascular cell phenotypic shifts. In aging vessels, the microRNA(miRNA)-mediated mechanism regulating the vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) phenotype remains unclarified. MiRNA microarray was used to compare the expressions of miRNAs in VSMCs from old rats (oVSMCs) and young rats (yVSMCs). Quantitative reverse transcription real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and small RNA transfection were used to explore the miR-542-3p expression in oVSMCs and yVSMCs in vitro. Calcification induction of yVSMCs was conducted by the treatment of β-glycerophosphate (β-GP). Alizarin red staining was used to detect calcium deposition. Western blot and qRT-PCR were used to investigate the expression of the smooth muscle markers, smooth muscle 22α (SM22α) and calponin, and the osteogenic markers, osteopontin (OPN), and runt-related transcription factor 2 (Runx2). Lentivirus was used to overexpress miR-542-3p and bone morphogenetic protein 7 (BMP7) in yVMSCs. Luciferase reporter assay was conducted to identify the target of miR-542-3p.

Results

Compared with yVSMCs, 28 downregulated and 34 upregulated miRNAs were identified in oVSMCs. It was confirmed by qRT-PCR that oVSMC expressed four times lower miR-542-3p than yVSMCs. Overexpressing miR-542-3p in yVSMCs suppressed the osteogenic differentiation induced by β-GP. Moreover, miR-542-3p targets BMP7 and overexpressing BMP7 in miR-542-3p–expressing yVSMCs reverses miR-542-3p’s inhibition of osteogenic differentiation.

Conclusions

miR-542-3p regulates osteogenic differentiation of VSMCs through targeting BMP7, suggesting that the downregulation of miR-542-3p in oVSMCs plays a crucial role in osteogenic transition in the aging rat.

Pituitary tissue-specific miR-7a-5p regulates FSH expression in rat anterior adenohypophyseal cells

The follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which is synthesized and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland, plays an important role in regulating reproductive processes. In this study, using the TargetScan program, we predicted that microRNAs (miRNAs) regulate FSH secretion. Dual-luciferase reporter assays were performed and identified miR-7a-5p. MiR-7a-5p has been reported to regulate diverse cellular functions. However, it is unclear whether miR-7a-5p binds to mRNAs and regulates reproductive functions. Therefore, we constructed a suspension of rat anterior pituitary cells and cultured them under adaptive conditions, transfected miR-7a-5p mimics or inhibitor into the cell suspension and detected expression of the FSHb gene. The results demonstrated that miR-7a-5p downregulated FSHb expression levels, while treatment with miR-7a-5p inhibitors upregulated FSHb expression levels relative to those of negative control groups, as shown by quantitative PCR analysis. The results were confirmed with a subsequent experiment showing that FSH secretion was reduced after treatment with mimics and increased in the inhibitor groups, as shown by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Our results indicated that miR-7a-5p downregulates FSHb expression levels, resulting in decreased FSH synthesis and secretion, which demonstrates the important role of miRNAs in the regulation of FSH and animal reproduction.