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Cardone D, Cerritelli F, Chiacchiaretta P, Perpetuini D, Merla A. Facial functional networks during resting state revealed by thermal infrared imaging. Phys Eng Sci Med 2023; 46:1573-1588. [PMID: 37644362 DOI: 10.1007/s13246-023-01321-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
In recent decades, an increasing number of studies on psychophysiology and, in general, on clinical medicine has employed the technique of facial thermal infrared imaging (IRI), which allows to obtain information about the emotional and physical states of the subjects in a completely non-invasive and contactless fashion. Several regions of interest (ROIs) have been reported in literature as salient areas for the psychophysiological characterization of a subject (i.e. nose tip and glabella ROIs). There is however a lack of studies focusing on the functional correlation among these ROIs and about the physiological basis of the relation existing between thermal IRI and vital signals, such as the electrodermal activity, i.e. the galvanic skin response (GSR). The present study offers a new methodology able to assess the functional connection between salient seed ROIs of thermal IRI and all the pixel of the face. The same approach was also applied considering as seed signal the GSR and its phasic and tonic components. Seed correlation analysis on 63 healthy volunteers demonstrated the presence of a common pathway regulating the facial thermal functionality and the electrodermal activity. The procedure was also tested on a pathological case study, finding a completely different pattern compared to the healthy cases. The method represents a promising tool in neurology, physiology and applied neurosciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Cardone
- Department of Engineering and Geology, University G. d'Annunzio of Chieti-Pescara, 65127, Pescara, Italy.
| | - Francesco Cerritelli
- Clinical Human-Based Department, Foundation COME Collaboarion, 65121, Pescara, Italy
| | - Piero Chiacchiaretta
- Department of Innovative Technologies in Medicine and Odontoiatry, University G. d'Annunzio of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - David Perpetuini
- Department of Engineering and Geology, University G. d'Annunzio of Chieti-Pescara, 65127, Pescara, Italy
| | - Arcangelo Merla
- Department of Engineering and Geology, University G. d'Annunzio of Chieti-Pescara, 65127, Pescara, Italy
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Corfits J, Singer W, Sandroni P, Fealey RD, Coon EA, Benarroch EE, Berini SE, Mauermann ML, Sletten DM, Cutsforth-Gregory JK, Schmelzer JD, Low PA. Elimination of spurious absent sweat response in QSWEAT recordings. Auton Neurosci 2019; 222:102589. [PMID: 31706219 DOI: 10.1016/j.autneu.2019.102589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Revised: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 09/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Forearm QSWEAT recordings are occasionally absent in females, likely due to high skin resistance. METHODS We identified consecutive subjects with no sudomotor abnormalities but absent/markedly reduced QSWEAT forearm volume, and repeated QSWEAT at the same site after gentle abrasion. RESULTS QSWEAT volumes were absent for 4 subjects and markedly reduced for the other 4 (median 0.01, IQR 0-0.03). After gentle skin abrasion, repeat volumes were significantly higher for all subjects and became normal in 7 of 8 subjects. DISCUSSION Skin abrasion restores QSWEAT volumes in previously absent/markedly reduced site suggesting that skin preparation using abrasion is more effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanne Corfits
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | | | - Paola Sandroni
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | | | | | | | - Sarah E Berini
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - Phillip A Low
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA.
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Glatte P, Buchmann SJ, Hijazi MM, Illigens BMW, Siepmann T. Architecture of the Cutaneous Autonomic Nervous System. Front Neurol 2019; 10:970. [PMID: 31551921 PMCID: PMC6746903 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2019.00970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The human skin is a highly specialized organ for receiving sensory information but also to preserve the body's homeostasis. These functions are mediated by cutaneous small nerve fibers which display a complex anatomical architecture and are commonly classified into cutaneous A-beta, A-delta and C-fibers based on their diameter, myelinization, and velocity of conduction of action potentials. Knowledge on structure and function of these nerve fibers is relevant as they are selectively targeted by various autonomic neuropathies such as diabetic neuropathy or Parkinson's disease. Functional integrity of autonomic skin nerve fibers can be assessed by quantitative analysis of cutaneous responses to local pharmacological induction of axon reflex responses which result in dilation of cutaneous vessels, sweating, or piloerection depending on the agent used to stimulate this neurogenic response. Sensory fibers can be assessed using quantitative sensory test. Complementing these functional assessments, immunohistochemical staining of superficial skin biopsies allow analysis of structural integrity of cutaneous nerve fibers, a technique which has gained attention due to its capacity of detecting pathogenic depositions of alpha-synuclein in patients with Parkinson's disease. Here, we reviewed the current literature on the anatomy and functional pathways of the cutaneous autonomic nervous system as well as diagnostic techniques to assess its functional and structural integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Glatte
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Sylvia J Buchmann
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Mido Max Hijazi
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Ben Min-Woo Illigens
- Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Timo Siepmann
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
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Mack GW. A model for in vivo analysis of sudomotor sympathetic C-fiber activation and human sweat gland output. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2017; 123:317-325. [PMID: 28522768 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01070.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Revised: 04/27/2017] [Accepted: 05/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Quantitative assessment of small-fiber peripheral neuropathy often involves an evaluation of the interaction between the C-fiber sudomotor nerve and local sweat rate (SR). Typically, some sort of quantitative sudomotor axon reflex test (QSART) is performed to aid in diagnosing small-fiber dysfunction. The currently used QSART demonstrates only moderate test-retest reliability and therefore limits its usefulness in tracking small-fiber dysfunction. A new experimental model to examine small C-fiber function in the skin using intradermal electrical stimulation and simultaneous monitoring of SR is proposed. Using intradermal electrical stimulation (1.5 and 2.5 mA) and varying stimulus frequency from 0.2 to 64 Hz, a quantitative relationship between the area under the SR-time curve and log10 stimulus frequency is modeled using a four-parameter logistic equation, providing the following parameters: baseline, plateau, EC50, and Hill slope. The model has good to excellent repeatability within the same day (ICC = 0.98), on different days at the same skin site (ICC = 0.80), and when comparing two different skin sites (ICC = 0.78) with a small bias estimate and the line of identity always lying within the 95% limits of agreement. Atropine sulfate (0.1 mg/ml) blocked 90 ± 5% of the electrically induced sweating. Overall, the model provides control over sudomotor nerve activity and a quantitative assessment of SR. Finally, the ability to reproduce the quantitative stimulus-response curve on different days allows for a robust assessment of the relationship between the activation of a sympathetic C-fiber and local SR.NEW & NOTEWORTHY A model for quantitative assessment of C-fiber function in human skin using intradermal electrical stimulation and local sweat rate measurements has been developed. This new electrically induced sweating model is nonpainful and allows for a complete stimulus-response curve plotting the area under the local sweat rate-time curve vs. the log10 stimulus frequency. The model has good reproducibility and should provide a means of assessing the progression of small C-fiber peripheral neuropathy in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary W Mack
- Department of Exercise Sciences, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
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Smith CJ, Johnson JM. Responses to hyperthermia. Optimizing heat dissipation by convection and evaporation: Neural control of skin blood flow and sweating in humans. Auton Neurosci 2016; 196:25-36. [PMID: 26830064 DOI: 10.1016/j.autneu.2016.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2015] [Revised: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Under normothermic, resting conditions, humans dissipate heat from the body at a rate approximately equal to heat production. Small discrepancies between heat production and heat elimination would, over time, lead to significant changes in heat storage and body temperature. When heat production or environmental temperature is high the challenge of maintaining heat balance is much greater. This matching of heat elimination with heat production is a function of the skin circulation facilitating heat transport to the body surface and sweating, enabling evaporative heat loss. These processes are manifestations of the autonomic control of cutaneous vasomotor and sudomotor functions and form the basis of this review. We focus on these systems in the responses to hyperthermia. In particular, the cutaneous vascular responses to heat stress and the current understanding of the neurovascular mechanisms involved. The available research regarding cutaneous active vasodilation and vasoconstriction is highlighted, with emphasis on active vasodilation as a major responder to heat stress. Involvement of the vasoconstrictor and active vasodilator controls of the skin circulation in the context of heat stress and nonthermoregulatory reflexes (blood pressure, exercise) are also considered. Autonomic involvement in the cutaneous vascular responses to direct heating and cooling of the skin are also discussed. We examine the autonomic control of sweating, including cholinergic and noncholinergic mechanisms, the local control of sweating, thermoregulatory and nonthermoregulatory reflex control and the possible relationship between sudomotor and cutaneous vasodilator function. Finally, we comment on the clinical relevance of these control schemes in conditions of autonomic dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline J Smith
- Department of Health and Exercise Science, Appalachian State University, Boone, NC 28608-2071, United States
| | - John M Johnson
- Department of Physiology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX 78229-3901, United States
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Landmann G, Stockinger L, Lustenberger C, Schmelz M, Rukwied R. Effects of Current Density on Nociceptor Activation Upon Electrical Stimulation in Humans. Pain Pract 2015; 16:273-81. [DOI: 10.1111/papr.12339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2014] [Accepted: 06/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gunther Landmann
- Centre for Pain Medicine; Swiss Paraplegic Centre; Nottwil Switzerland
| | - Lenka Stockinger
- Centre for Pain Medicine; Swiss Paraplegic Centre; Nottwil Switzerland
| | | | - Martin Schmelz
- Medical Faculty Mannheim; Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine; University of Heidelberg; Mannheim Germany
| | - Roman Rukwied
- Medical Faculty Mannheim; Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine; University of Heidelberg; Mannheim Germany
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Analgesic treatment of ciguatoxin-induced cold allodynia. Pain 2013; 154:1999-2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pain.2013.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2012] [Revised: 06/01/2013] [Accepted: 06/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Objective Assessment of C-Fiber Function by Electrically Induced Axon Reflex Flare in Patients With Axonal and Demyelinating Polyneuropathy. J Clin Neurophysiol 2013; 30:422-7. [DOI: 10.1097/wnp.0b013e31829ddb97] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
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Metzler-Wilson K, Wilson TE. Topical anaesthesia does not affect cutaneous vasomotor or sudomotor responses in human skin. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 33:25-33. [PMID: 23663206 DOI: 10.1111/aap.12007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2012] [Revised: 02/16/2013] [Accepted: 03/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
(1) The effects of local sensory blockade (topical anaesthesia) on eccrine sweat glands and cutaneous circulation are not well understood. This study aimed to determine whether topical lidocaine/prilocaine alters eccrine sweat gland and cutaneous blood vessel responses. (2) Sweating (capacitance hygrometry) was induced via forearm intradermal microdialysis of five acetylcholine (ACh) doses (1 × 10(-4) to 1 × 10(0) m, 10-fold increments) in control and treated forearm sites in six healthy subjects. Nitric oxide-mediated vasodilatory (sodium nitroprusside) and adrenergic vasoconstrictor (noradrenaline) agonists were iontophoresed in lidocaine/prilocaine-treated and control forearm skin in nine healthy subjects during blood flow assessment (laser Doppler flowmetry, expressed as% from baseline cutaneous vascular conductance; CVC; flux/mean arterial pressure). (3) Non-linear regression curve fitting identified no change in the ED50 of ACh-induced sweating after sensory blockade (-1.42 ± 0.23 logM) compared to control (-1.27 ± 0.23 logM; P > .05) or in Emax (0.43 ± 0.08 with, 0.53 ± 0.16 mg cm(-2) min(-1) without lidocaine/prilocaine; P > .05). Sensory blockade did not alter the vasodilator response to sodium nitroprusside (1280 ± 548% change from baseline CVC with, 1204 ± 247% without lidocaine/prilocaine) or vasoconstrictor response to noradrenaline (-14 ± 4% change from baseline CVC with, -22 ± 14% without lidocaine/prilocaine; P > 0.05). (4) Cutaneous sensory blockade does not appear to alter nitric oxide-mediated vasodilation, adrenergic vasoconstriction, or cholinergic eccrine sweating dose-response sensitivity or responsiveness to maximal dose. Thus, lidocaine/prilocaine treatment should not affect sweat gland function or have blood flow implications for subsequent research protocols or clinical procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Metzler-Wilson
- Ohio Musculoskeletal and Neurological Institute, Irvine Hall, Ohio University, Athens, OH, 45701, USA; Department of Physical Therapy, Lebanon Valley College, 101 N College Ave, Annville, PA, 17003, USA
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Petrofsky JS, Alshammari F, Bains GS, Khowailed IA, Lee H, Kuderu YN, Lodha RD, Rodrigues S, Nguyen D, Potnis PA, Deshpande PP, Yim JE, Berk L. What is more damaging to vascular endothelial function: Diabetes, age, high BMI, or all of the above? Med Sci Monit 2013; 19:257-63. [PMID: 23666370 PMCID: PMC3659113 DOI: 10.12659/msm.883878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2012] [Accepted: 12/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND It is well established that there is a reduction in the skin blood flow (SBF) in response to heat with age and diabetes. While it is known that high BMI creates a stress on the cardiovascular system and increases the risk of all cause of morbidity and mortality, little is known of the effect of high BMI on SBF response to heat. Since diabetes is associated with age and a higher BMI, the interrelationship between age, BMI and SBF needs to be investigated to better understand the contribution diabetes alone has to endothelial impairment. MATERIAL AND METHODS This study examined the SBF to heat in young and old people with low and high BMI and people with diabetes with high BMI to determine the contribution these variables have on SBF. Subjects were ten young and older people with BMI <20 and ten young and older people with BMI >20 and ten subjects with diabetes with BMI >20. The SBF response, above the quadriceps, was determined during a 6 minutes exposure to heat at 44°C. RESULTS Even in young people, SBF after the stress of heat exposure was reduced in subjects with a high BMI. The effect of BMI was greatest in young people and lowest in older people and people with diabetes; in people with diabetes, BMI was a more significant variable than diabetes in causing impairment of blood flow to heat. BMI, for example, was responsible for 49% of the reduction in blood flow after stress heat exposure (R=-0.7) while ageing only accounted for 16% of the blood flow reduction (R=-0.397). CONCLUSIONS These results would suggest the importance of keeping BMI low not only in people with diabetes to minimize further circulatory vascular damage, but also in young people to diminish long term circulatory vascular compromise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerrold Scott Petrofsky
- Department of Physical Therapy, School of Allied Health Professions, Loma Linda University, Loma LInda, CA, USA.
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Namer B, Pfeffer S, Handwerker HO, Schmelz M, Bickel A. Axon reflex flare and quantitative sudomotor axon reflex contribute in the diagnosis of small fiber neuropathy. Muscle Nerve 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/mus.23543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Namer
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology; University of Erlangen; Universitätsstr. 17, 91054 Erlangen Germany
| | - Stefan Pfeffer
- Department of Neurology; Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen; Germany
| | - Hermann O. Handwerker
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology; University of Erlangen; Universitätsstr. 17, 91054 Erlangen Germany
| | - Martin Schmelz
- Department of Anesthesiology; Mannheim, University Heidelberg; Germany
| | - Andreas Bickel
- Department of Neurology; Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen; Germany
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The influence of autonomic dysfunction associated with aging and type 2 diabetes on daily life activities. EXPERIMENTAL DIABETES RESEARCH 2012; 2012:657103. [PMID: 22566994 PMCID: PMC3332074 DOI: 10.1155/2012/657103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2011] [Revised: 01/28/2012] [Accepted: 01/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Type 2 diabetes (T2D) and ageing have well documented effects on every organ in the body. In T2D the autonomic nervous system is impaired due to damage to neurons, sensory receptors, synapses and the blood vessels. This paper will concentrate on how autonomic impairment alters normal daily activities. Impairments include the response of the blood vessels to heat, sweating, heat transfer, whole body heating, orthostatic intolerance, balance, and gait. Because diabetes is more prevalent in older individuals, the effects of ageing will be examined. Beginning with endothelial dysfunction, blood vessels have impairment in their ability to vasodilate. With this and synaptic damage, the autonomic nervous system cannot compensate for effectors such as pressure on and heating of the skin. This and reduced ability of the heart to respond to stress, reduces autonomic orthostatic compensation. Diminished sweating causes the skin and core temperature to be high during whole body heating. Impaired orthostatic tolerance, impaired vision and vestibular sensing, causes poor balance and impaired gait. Overall, people with T2D must be made aware and counseled relative to the potential consequence of these impairments.
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Sommer P, Kluschina O, Schley M, Namer B, Schmelz M, Rukwied R. Electrically induced quantitative sudomotor axon reflex test in human volunteers. Auton Neurosci 2011; 159:111-6. [PMID: 20923721 DOI: 10.1016/j.autneu.2010.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2010] [Revised: 09/07/2010] [Accepted: 09/09/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Chemically-induced quantitative sudomotor axon reflex test (QSART) and quantitative sensory testing (QST) are established clinical tools to assess thin fiber function in humans. We investigated stimulus-response functions to transcutaneous electrical stimuli of different current intensity (3.75 to 10mA) and pulse frequency (5 to 100Hz) comparing sweat output (ml/h/m(2)) and pain intensity (numeric rating scale [NRS], 0-10). Efferent sudomotor and afferent nociceptive responses were recorded after a 30s electrical stimulation period of distal (hand and foot) and proximal (forearm and thorax) body sites with 3 repetitive measures per body site. Sweat responses increased intensity dependently and peaked (~100ml/h/m(2)) at highest currents (10mA) that had been administered. Similarly, pain ratings increased with an escalating current intensity. At a constant stimulus intensity of 7.5mA, sudomotor activity was highest (~75ml/h/m(2)) at a stimulus frequency of 20Hz without further increase at 50 or 100Hz. In contrast, pain ratings increased frequency dependently and reached NRS 7 at 100Hz. Sudomotor activity, but not pain ratings, was significantly different between the body sites (p<0.05, ANOVA) with maximum sweat responses obtained at the ventral forearm. Varying response patterns for higher stimulation frequencies between sweating (peak maximum at 20Hz) and pain (maximum at 100Hz) might indicate differential axonal properties of sympathetic efferent and nociceptive afferent fibers. Electrically induced QSART could be a useful explorative and clinical method to indirectly study characteristics of frequency-dependent axonal excitability changes of sudomotor fibers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Sommer
- University Medicine Mannheim, Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, University of Heidelberg, Germany
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Obreja O, Kluschina O, Mayer A, Hirth M, Schley M, Schmelz M, Rukwied R. NGF enhances electrically induced pain, but not axon reflex sweating. Pain 2011; 152:1856-1863. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pain.2011.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2010] [Revised: 03/23/2011] [Accepted: 04/01/2011] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Petrofsky J. A method of measuring the interaction between skin temperature and humidity on skin vascular endothelial function in people with diabetes. J Med Eng Technol 2011; 35:330-7. [PMID: 21736497 DOI: 10.3109/03091902.2011.592237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A core defect in people with Type 2 Diabetes is endothelial dysfunction. This defect permeates all organ systems in the body including the ability of the skin to protect itself from thermal injuries by an appropriate increase in skin circulation. Most studies on the local response to heating have been done with dry heat sources. Recent data show that endothelial function is improved in people with diabetes with moist heat. Little is known about 'how' moist heat must be or the mechanisms on why moist heat triggers a better blood flow response than dry heat. METHODS In the present investigation, a device was developed to provide variable temperature air and variable humidity as an aid to study the dynamics of the skin circulatory response to heat in people with diabetes. The device consisted of a water bath used to heat air and an air dryer and air bubbler to generate dry and moist air, respectively, at a fixed temperature. The air could then be mixed and the temperature stabilized to produce a variable temperature and humidity air source to expose the skin to in people with diabetes. RESULTS The device was validated at different air temperatures and humidities and tested on four subjects to assess operation. The air flows, temperatures and humilities were stable with less than a 5% coefficient of variation. CONCLUSIONS Testing on humans showed that there appeared to be a linear relationship between air humidity and blood flow at a given air temperature exposed to the skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerrold Petrofsky
- Department of Physical Therapy, School of Allied Health Professions, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, USA.
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Petrofsky JS. The effect of type-2-diabetes-related vascular endothelial dysfunction on skin physiology and activities of daily living. J Diabetes Sci Technol 2011; 5:657-67. [PMID: 21722580 PMCID: PMC3192631 DOI: 10.1177/193229681100500319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
A common factor contributing to organ damage in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is impaired tissue blood flow caused by damage to vascular endothelial cells (VECs). Damage can occur even before the clinical diagnosis of diabetes. It can be caused by both a high average blood glucose concentration and/or large daily spikes in blood glucose. While much of the present literature focuses on the damage to VECs and organs from these large glucose excursions, this review will focus on the consequence of this damage, that is, how endothelial cell damage in diabetes affects normal daily activities (e.g., exercise, reaction to typical stimuli) and various treatment modalities (e.g.. contrast baths and electrical stimulation therapy). It is important to understand the effects of VEC damage such as poor skin blood flow, compromised thermoregulation, and altered response to skin pressure in designing diabetes technologies as simple as heating pads and as complex as continuous glucose monitors. At the simplest level, people with diabetes have poor circulation to the skin and other organs. In the skin, even the blood flow response to locally applied pressure, such as during standing, is different than for people who do not have T2DM. Simple weight bearing on the foot can occlude the skin circulation. This makes the skin more susceptible to damage. In addition, endothelial damage has far-reaching effects on the whole body during normal activities of daily living, including an impaired response to local heat, such as hot packs and contrast baths, and higher body temperatures during whole body heating due to impaired blood flow and a reduced ability to sweat. Finally, because of multiple organ damage, people with T2DM have poor balance and gait and impaired exercise performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerrold Scott Petrofsky
- Department of Physical Therapy, School of Allied Health Professions, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, California, USA.
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Schmidt R, Weidner C, Schmelz M. Time course of acetylcholine-induced activation of sympathetic efferents matches axon reflex sweating in humans. J Peripher Nerv Syst 2011; 16:30-6. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1529-8027.2011.00320.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Petrofsky J, Goraksh N, Alshammari F, Mohanan M, Soni J, Trivedi M, Lee H, Hudlikar AN, Yang CH, Agilan B, Pai N, Chindam T, Murugesan V, Eun Yim J, Katrak V. The ability of the skin to absorb heat; the effect of repeated exposure and age. Med Sci Monit 2011; 17:CR1-8. [PMID: 21169905 PMCID: PMC3524686 DOI: 10.12659/msm.881315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Background When heat is applied to the skin, it is dissipated due to conductive heat flow in the tissue and the blood. While heat flow has been studied after applying a single heat exposure, the physiology of repeated exposures to local heat has not been well investigated. Material/Methods Twenty male and female subjects in the age range of 20–65 years old participated in a series of experiments during which a thermode was placed on their leg above the quadriceps muscle for 20 minutes, and on 3 sequential days, to see the effect of repeated local heat on skin blood flow, skin temperature, and on caloric transfer from a thermode used to raise skin temperature. Results The results of the experiment showed that, for young subjects, to raise skin temperature to 40 degrees C required more than double the calories required in older subjects. Further, in the younger subjects, the blood flow response in the first 20 minutes of heat exposure was over 30% higher than that seen in the older subjects. However, on the 2nd and 3rd day, the blood flow response of the younger subjects, was not significantly different between day 2 and 3, but was significantly less than day 1. There was no statistical difference in the blood flow response between day 1, 2 and 3 in the older subjects. In the younger subjects, in the 2 and 3rd day, the number of calories needed to warm the skin was also significantly less than that seen in the first day. Conclusions In younger subjects but not older subjects, there appears to be some degree of acclimatization with an enhanced blood flow response in the first day that was protective to the skin which was not seen in repeated heat exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerrold Petrofsky
- Department of Physical Therapy, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA.
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Sletten DM, Weigand SD, Low PA. Relationship of Q-sweat to quantitative sudomotor axon reflex test (QSART) volumes. Muscle Nerve 2010; 41:240-6. [PMID: 19768767 DOI: 10.1002/mus.21464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Q-Sweat, a commercial quantitative sweat measurement system, is modeled on quantitative sudomotor axon reflex testing (QSART). This study investigated the sweat response using Q-Sweat and Mayo-QSART recordings under identical conditions in healthy normal controls. Ninety-four participants were recruited for this study. All participants underwent randomized bilateral QSART recordings over the four standard recording regions. For both men and women, Wilcoxon signed rank tests of paired differences showed significantly lower volumes at each of the four sites for Q-Sweat vs. Mayo-QSART. Linear regression analysis was used to estimate the relationship between Q-Sweat and Mayo-QSART volume measurements separately for men and women. Although there was variability about the regression lines, these fitted models can be used to estimate the expected Mayo-QSART volume given an observed Q-Sweat volume, although it is preferable to use the Q-Sweat normative database directly. We hypothesize that the constant-current generator used in conjunction with Q-Sweat provides a less efficient iontophoresis of acetylcholine than the Mayo-constructed constant-current stimulator and results in lower volumes.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Sletten
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
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20
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Almalty AMR, Petrofsky JS, Al-Naami B, Al-Nabulsi J. An effective method for skin blood flow measurement using local heat combined with electrical stimulation. J Med Eng Technol 2009; 33:663-9. [DOI: 10.3109/03091900903271646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Bickel A, Heyer G, Senger C, Maihoefner C, Heuss D, Hilz MJ, Namer B. C-fiber axon reflex flare size correlates with epidermal nerve fiber density in human skin biopsies. J Peripher Nerv Syst 2009; 14:294-9. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1529-8027.2009.00241.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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22
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Age related changes in human C-fiber function. Neurosci Lett 2009; 470:185-7. [PMID: 19607877 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2009.07.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2009] [Revised: 07/06/2009] [Accepted: 07/08/2009] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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23
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Al Malty AM, Petrofsky J, Akhavan S. Aging in Women: The Effect of Menopause on Skin Blood Flow and the Response to Electrical Stimulation. PHYSICAL & OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY IN GERIATRICS 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/02703180802335659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Namer B, Handwerker HO. Translational nociceptor research as guide to human pain perceptions and pathophysiology. Exp Brain Res 2009; 196:163-72. [PMID: 19350229 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-009-1777-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2009] [Accepted: 03/17/2009] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Microneurography is a method for recording single unit action potentials with microelectrodes from the nerves of awake cooperating humans. Although this method is now in use since almost 40 years, its potency has been strengthened by the recent technical developments. A great progress was the discovery that different functional groups of nociceptors are characterized by a distinctly different post-excitatory slowing of their conduction velocities. Microneurography is now powerful enough to analyze the nerve activity pattern of enigmatic sensations such as pruritus. Furthermore, it is the only method providing direct insight in the changes which human nerves undergo with aging. Recently, reliable recordings from patients suffering from painful neuropathies came into reach. It has been shown that different types of neuropathies are characterized by different patterns of abnormal nociceptor functions. Although some of them are characterized by abnormal spontaneous activity in C-nociceptors, others show mainly signs of denervation. Microneurography is, therefore, a tool for translational studies on human nociceptor functions by linking direct animal studies on experimental neuropathies with human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Namer
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Institut für Physiologie und Pathophysiologie, University of Erlangen/Nuernberg, Universitätsstr. 17, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
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Dusch M, Schley M, Obreja O, Forsch E, Schmelz M, Rukwied R. Comparison of electrically induced flare response patterns in human and pig skin. Inflamm Res 2009; 58:639-48. [DOI: 10.1007/s00011-009-0029-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2009] [Revised: 03/04/2009] [Accepted: 03/04/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
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Namer B, Barta B, Ørstavik K, Schmidt R, Carr R, Schmelz M, Handwerker HO. Microneurographic assessment of C-fibre function in aged healthy subjects. J Physiol 2008; 587:419-28. [PMID: 19064617 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2008.162941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Physiological changes in the nervous system occur with ageing. Both a decline of function and a decrease in the number of C-fibres in the skin have been reported for healthy aged subjects. With the use of microneurographic recordings from single C-fibres in humans we have compared the sensory and axonal properties of these neurones in young and aged healthy subjects. A total of 146 C-fibres were recorded from the common peroneal nerve in young subjects (mean age 24.7 years) and 230 C-fibres were recorded in aged subjects (mean age 56.2 years). In aged subjects, changes were found in the composition of the C-fibre population and in sensory and axonal properties. The relative incidence of afferent to efferent C-fibres was relatively constant independent of the age of subjects. The ratio of mechano-responsive to mechano-insensitive nociceptors was approximately 8 : 2 in the young controls while in aged subjects it was 7 : 3. In aged subjects 13% of the fibres showed atypical discharge characteristics, while this was not observed in young subjects. Spontaneous activity, sensitization and loss of sensory function were found regularly. Changes in functions of the conductile membrane were also observed in fibres from aged subjects. The degree of activity-dependent conduction velocity slowing in response to high frequency stimulation (2 Hz) was more pronounced, while the normalization of conduction velocity subsequent to high frequency stimulation was protracted. We found that both sensitization and desensitization or degeneration of afferent C-fibres occur with age, but are still rare compared to patients with neuropathy. The changes in the axonal properties of C-fibres in aged subjects are compatible with hypoexcitability of the fibres. These findings are important for the understanding and differential diagnoses regarding pathological processes and normal ageing.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Namer
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University of Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany.
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Sweat testing to evaluate autonomic function. Clin Auton Res 2008; 19:79-87. [PMID: 18989618 DOI: 10.1007/s10286-008-0506-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2008] [Accepted: 10/08/2008] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Sudomotor dysfunction is common in many subtypes of neuropathy but is one of the earliest detectable neurophysiologic abnormalities in distal small fiber neuropathy. Clinical assessments of sudomotor function include thermoregulatory sweat testing (TST), quantitative sudomotor axon reflex testing (QSART), silicone impressions, the sympathetic skin response (SSR), the acetylcholine sweat-spot test and quantitative direct and indirect axon reflex testing (QDIRT). These testing techniques, when used in combination, can detect and localize pre- and postganglionic lesions, can provide early diagnosis of sudomotor dysfunction and can monitor disease progression or disease recovery. In this article, we describe many of the common clinical tests available for evaluation of sudomotor function with focus on the testing methodology and limitations while providing concrete examples of test results.
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Dusch M, Schley M, Rukwied R, Schmelz M. Rapid flare development evoked by current frequency-dependent stimulation analyzed by full-field laser perfusion imaging. Neuroreport 2007; 18:1101-5. [PMID: 17589307 DOI: 10.1097/wnr.0b013e3281e72cff] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
We analyzed, with a new imaging technique, the rapid axon reflex flare responses in human skin upon transcutaneous delivery of electrical stimuli at 1, 5, 10 and 50 Hz in single bursts of five pulses each. Two-dimensional perfusion images covering an area of 8 x 8 cm(2) were captured at 25 Hz and their averages saved at 0.5 Hz. The stimulation caused an axon reflex flare (maximum 3 cm(2), 20 s after stimulation) that gradually resolved within 2 min. Maximum flare responses developed at 5 Hz, whereas pain ratings increased with stimulation frequency. The highest neuropeptide release at 5 Hz correlates to the discharge characteristics of mechanoinsensitive C-fibers, whereas the maximum pain intensity at 50 Hz may be attributed to the activation of A-delta fibers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Dusch
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Germany
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Geber C, Fondel R, Krämer HH, Rolke R, Treede RD, Sommer C, Birklein F. Psychophysics, Flare, and Neurosecretory Function in Human Pain Models: Capsaicin Versus Electrically Evoked Pain. THE JOURNAL OF PAIN 2007; 8:503-14. [PMID: 17434803 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpain.2007.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2006] [Revised: 12/17/2006] [Accepted: 01/22/2007] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Intradermal capsaicin injection (CAP) and electrical current stimulation (ES) are analyzed in respect to patterns and test-retest reliability of pain as well as sensory and neurosecretory changes. In 10 healthy subjects, 2x CAP (50 microg) and 2x ES (5 to 30 mA) were applied to the volar forearm. The time period between 2 identical stimulations was about 4 months. Pain ratings, areas of mechanical hyperalgesia, and allodynia were assessed. The intensity of sensory changes was quantified by using quantitative sensory testing. Neurogenic flare was assessed by using laser Doppler imaging. Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) release was quantified by dermal microdialysis in combination with an enzyme immunoassay. Time course and peak pain ratings were different between CAP and ES. Test-retest correlation was high (r > or = 0.73). Both models induced primary heat hyperalgesia and primary plus secondary pin-prick hyperalgesia. Allodynia occurred in about half of the subjects. Maximum flare sizes did not differ between CAP and ES, but flare intensities were higher for ES. Test-retest correlation was higher for flare sizes than for flare intensity. A significant CGRP release could only be measured after CAP. The different time courses of pain stimulation (CAP: rapidly decaying pain versus ES: pain plateau) led to different peripheral neurosecretory effects but induced similar central plasticity and hyperalgesia. PERSPECTIVE The present study gives a detailed overview of psychophysical and neurosecretory characteristics induced by noxious stimulation with capsaicin and electrical current. We describe differences, similarities, and reproducibility of these human pain models. These data might help to interpret past and future results of human pain studies using experimental pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Geber
- Klinik und Poliklinik für Neurologie der Universität Mainz, Germany.
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Morgan CJ, Friedmann PS, Church MK, Clough GF. Cutaneous Microdialysis as a Novel Means of Continuously Stimulating Eccrine Sweat Glands In Vivo. J Invest Dermatol 2006; 126:1220-5. [PMID: 16470172 DOI: 10.1038/sj.jid.5700197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies of the pharmacological regulation of sweat gland function in humans have administered agonists or antagonists systemically, by local intradermal injection or by iontophoresis. This has not allowed prolonged or steady-state activation of sweat glands to be examined. In this study, we used the technique of dermal microdialysis to administer pharmacological agents singly and in combination for up to 5 hours. Muscarinic stimulation with pilocarpine nitrate (50 mug ml(-1) to 1.66 mg ml(-1)) produced a sigmoid dose response curve, with maximal sweating (measured as transepidermal water loss) (mean 70 g m(-2) hour(-1)) after 15 minutes. This was sustained at steady-state levels (55 g m(-2) hour(-1)) until perfusion stopped. Perfusion with atropine (0.003 mg ml(-1)) reduced sweating below baseline and blocked pilocarpine-induced sweating completely. Noradrenaline (0.005 mg ml(-1)) induced much lower sweat rates than pilocarpine (56.8+/-1.62 g m(-2) hour(-1) vs 8.2+/-1.2 g m(-2) hour(-1), respectively, P<0.001) and this was unaffected by co-administration of atropine. This method has made it possible to show that sweat glands are capable of sustaining near maximal activity for at least 5 hours. The method has future application in investigation of conditions with disordered sweat gland activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline J Morgan
- IIR Research Division, School of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton General Hospital, Southampton, UK
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Schlereth T, Brosda N, Birklein F. Somatotopic arrangement of sudomotor axon reflex sweating in humans. Auton Neurosci 2005; 123:76-81. [PMID: 16194630 DOI: 10.1016/j.autneu.2005.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2005] [Revised: 07/11/2005] [Accepted: 08/04/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Impaired sweating may be one of the first symptoms in neuropathies, and therefore the evaluation of sweating might facilitate their early detection. Sudomotor axon reflexes can be quantified by two different methods: quantitative sudomotor axon reflex testing (QSART) measures the amount of local sweating, whereas staining with the iodine starch reaction assesses the extension of the sudomotor axon reflex area. The aim of our study was to compare both tests at three different sites on the leg: foot, lower leg and thigh. METHODS QSART and iodine starch staining after iontophoretic stimulation with acetylcholine were performed on 15 male volunteers (mean age: 25; range 24-27 years) on the left resp. the right leg during a single session. RESULTS QSART response, measured as area under the curve (AUC), was maximal at the lower leg (911 AUC), smaller at the dorsum of the foot (585 AUC) and even smaller at the thigh (480 AUC). The difference between lower leg and thigh was significant (p < 0.02). The sudomotor axon reflex area was also biggest on the lower leg (39 cm(2)) followed by the foot dorsum (28 cm(2)), and then the thigh (16 cm(2)). The differences between lower leg and thigh as well as between lower leg and foot were significant (p < 0.01, resp. p < 0.04). The size of the sudomotor axon reflex areas and QSART responses were correlated (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS QSART and sudomotor axon reflex areas had similar somatotopic arrangements in human skin. The bigger the axon reflex area was the stronger the QSART response was. This indicates that the size of the innervation territories of sudomotor fibres covaries with the amount of local sweat production. The latter is a surrogate for increased sweat gland density or capacity in skin areas of dense sudomotor innervation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Schlereth
- Department of Neurology, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany.
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