Experimental gestational hypothyroidism evokes hypertension in adult offspring rats

Maternal hypothyroidism and subsequent metabolic outcomes in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

As the fetus relies on maternal thyroid hormones in early pregnancy, maternal hypothyroidism plays an important role in fetal development. However, the association between maternal hypothyroidism and metabolic disease in offspring is unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between maternal hypothyroidism in pregnancy and metabolic outcomes (obesity, hypertension, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and dyslipidemia) in children < 18 years.

METHODS

We systematically searched 5 databases from inception to May 2023. Eligible studies included cohort, case-control, and randomized controlled trials involving children born to mothers with or without hypothyroidism in pregnancy. Data were pooled across studies using random-effects models for outcomes reported in at least three studies. Quality assessment was performed using the ROBINS-E tool for observational studies and the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool for trials.

RESULTS

The search identified 3221 articles, of which 7 studies were included (1 trial, 6 observational). All studies were conducted outside of North America and ranged in size from 250 to > 1 million children. The follow-up time ranged from 6 to 20 years. Included studies support an increased risk of hypertension and glucose dysregulation in offspring exposed to maternal hypothyroidism (hypertension: OR 1.08, 95% CI 0.75, 1.57 and HR 1.81, 95% CI 1.21, 2.69; diabetes: RR 2.7, 95% CI 0.7, 10). In the pooled analysis, maternal hypothyroidism was not associated with obesity in offspring (OR 1.04, 95% CI 0.64, 1.70).

CONCLUSION

This study found inconsistent evidence on the association between maternal hypothyroidism in pregnancy and metabolic outcomes in offspring, though associations with hypertension and glucose dysregulation are possible.

Protective role of the ginsenoside Rg1 against methimazole-induced gestational hypothyroidism on reflexive behaviors, conditioned fear and cortical antioxidant levels in mice offspring

Ginsenoside Rg1(Rg1), a monomer of a tetracyclic triterpenoid derivative, possesses diverse medicinal properties attributed to its unique chemical structure and may have beneficial effects on fetal development. This study aimed to investigate the protective effects of prenatal exposure to Rg1 against Methimazole-induced gestational hypothyroidism on reflexive behaviors, conditioned fear, and cortical antioxidant levels in mouse offspring.40 female virgin mice and 12 male NMRI mice were assigned to four groups: group 1 served as the control, group 2 received Methimazole(MMI) at a concentration of 0.02% in their drinking water, group 3 received Rg1(150 mg/kg), and group 4 received both MMI and Rg1.Groups of 2-4 were administered the substances from days 1-9 of gestation. After delivery, pups were selected, and reflexive motor behaviors and conditioned fear were assessed. Additionally, levels of brain tissue catalase(CAT), malondialdehyde(MDA), superoxide dismutase(SOD), and glutathione peroxidase(GPx) levels were measured. Furthermore, postpartum immobility time in the forced swimming test (FST), tail suspension test (TST), and the number of squares crossed in the open field test (OFT)were determined. The results demonstrated that maternal exposure to Rg1 improved ambulation score, hind-limb suspension score, grip strength, front-limb suspension, hind-limb foot angle, negative geotaxis, surface righting, and conditioned fear in hypothyroidism-induced offspring(P<0.05). Rg1 decreased immobility time in the FST, and TST, and increased the number of squares crossed in the OFT in postpartum hypothyroidism-induced mice(P<0.05). Moreover, Rg1 reduced brain tissue MDA levels and increased brain tissue CAT, SOD, and GPx levels in mice and their offspring(P<0.05). These findings indicate that Rg1 mitigated postpartum depression in mice and improved reflexive motor behaviors in their pups.

Association of maternal thyroid disease with obesity in child

OBJECTIVES

During pregnancy, many women develop thyroid disorders, which can result in fetal and neonatal development defects. We investigated whether maternal thyroid dysfunction would affect their children's growth and obesity.

STUDY DESIGN

We conducted a nationwide population-based cohort study using a combination of data from several Korean nationwide registries to investigate the association between maternal thyroid dysfunction, offspring growth, and obesity. Childhood growth was repeatedly measured at three periods of age from 42 to 80 months, using body mass index (BMI).

RESULTS

A total of 1,123,499 women were enrolled in this study; 78,902 (7.0 %) had pre-pregnancy thyroid disease. Significant association was found between maternal hyperthyroidism and obesity in all children aged 42-66 months (42-54 months, adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 0.93, 95 % confidence interval (CI) 0.89-0.98; 54-66 months, aOR 0.93, 95 % CI 0.87-0.99), but not at later ages. In the analysis by sex, maternal hyperthyroidism was associated with childhood obesity in boys, whereas it was not associated with those in girls of any age. No association was observed between maternal hypothyroidism and child BMI or obesity.

CONCLUSIONS

The association between maternal thyroid function and obesity in offspring is attenuated from early to late childhood, suggesting that many other factors may be involved in developing childhood obesity.

Effects of maternal hypothyroidism on postnatal cardiomyocyte proliferation and cardiac disease responses of the progeny

Maternal hypothyroidism (MH) could adversely affect the cardiac disease responses of the progeny. This study tested the hypothesis that MH reduces early postnatal cardiomyocyte (CM) proliferation so that the adult heart of MH progeny has a smaller number of larger cardiac myocytes, which imparts adverse cardiac disease responses following injury. Thyroidectomy (TX) was used to establish MH. The progeny from mice that underwent sham or TX surgery were termed Ctrl (control) or MH (maternal hypothyroidism) progeny, respectively. MH progeny had similar heart weight (HW) to body weight (BW) ratios and larger CM size consistent with fewer CMs at postnatal day 60 (P60) compared with Ctrl (control) progeny. MH progeny had lower numbers of EdU+, Ki67+, and phosphorylated histone H3 (PH3)+ CMs, which suggests they had a decreased CM proliferation in the postnatal timeframe. RNA-seq data showed that genes related to DNA replication were downregulated in P5 MH hearts, including bone morphogenetic protein 10 (Bmp10). Both in vivo and in vitro studies showed Bmp10 treatment increased CM proliferation. After transverse aortic constriction (TAC), the MH progeny had more severe cardiac pathological remodeling compared with the Ctrl progeny. Thyroid hormone (T4) treatment for MH mothers preserved their progeny's postnatal CM proliferation capacity and prevented excessive pathological remodeling after TAC. Our results suggest that CM proliferation during early postnatal development was significantly reduced in MH progeny, resulting in fewer CMs with hypertrophy in adulthood. These changes were associated with more severe cardiac disease responses after pressure overload.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Our study shows that compared with Ctrl (control) progeny, the adult progeny of mothers who have MH (MH progeny) had fewer CMs. This reduction of CM numbers was associated with decreased postnatal CM proliferation. Gene expression studies showed a reduced expression of Bmp10 in MH progeny. Bmp10 has been linked to myocyte proliferation. In vivo and in vitro studies showed that Bmp10 treatment of MH progeny and their myocytes could increase CM proliferation. Differences in CM number and size in adult hearts of MH progeny were linked to more severe cardiac structural and functional remodeling after pressure overload. T4 (synthetic thyroxine) treatment of MH mothers during their pregnancy, prevented the reduction in CM number in their progeny and the adverse response to disease stress.

Methimazole-induced gestational hypothyroidism affects the offspring development and differently impairs the conditioned fear in male and female adulthood rodents

Gestational hypothyroidism is a prevalent disorder in pregnant women and also impairs fetal development with relevant outcomes. One of the outcomes of greatest interest has been rodent fear- and anxiety-like behavior. However, the relationship between maternal hypothyroidism and onset of conditioned fear-related responses in offspring remains controversial. Here, we used a well-validated methimazole-induced gestational hypothyroidism to investigate the behavioral consequences in offspring. Dams were treated with methimazole at 0.02% in drinking water up to gestational Day 9. Maternal body weights and maternal behavior were evaluated, and the puppies ware analyzed for weight gain and physical/behavioral development and assigned for the open field and fear conditioning test. Methimazole-induced gestational hypothyroidism induced loss in maternal and litter weight, increases in maternal behavior, and impairs in offspring developmental landmarks in both male and female rodents. Only male offspring enhanced responsiveness to conditioned fear-like behavior in adulthood.

Prenatal hypothyroidism diminished exogenous NO-mediated diastolic effects in fetal rat thoracic aorta smooth muscle via increased oxidative stress

Maternal hypothyroidism is an important problem of modern healthcare and is reported to increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases in the offspring later in life. However, it is unclear whether hypothyroidism during pregnancy causes vascular damage in the fetal period. We established the prenatal hypothyroidism rat model and collected the fetuses at the 21th day of gestation (GD21). Thyroid hormone concentrations in maternal and offspring blood serum were assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The thoracic aortas of the fetuses were isolated for microvessel functional testing and histochemical stainings. qPCR and Western blot were performed to access mRNA and protein expression. We found that the concentrations of thyroid hormones in the serum of pregnant rats and fetuses were significantly suppressed at GD21. The responses of the fetal thoracic aortas to SNP were significantly attenuated in the PTU group. However, no statistical difference was found between the two groups when treated with either inhibitor (ODQ) or activator (BAY58-2667) of sGC. The production of O₂^-• in the arterial wall was significantly increased in hypothyroid fetuses. Moreover, the level of NADPH oxidase (NOX) was increased, while superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2) was down-regulated in the PTU group, ultimately contributing to the increased production of superoxide. Additionally, decreased SNP-mediated vasodilation found in fetal vessels was improved by either NOX inhibitor (Apocynin) or SOD mimic (Tempol). These results indicate that increased oxidative stress is probably the cause of the diminished diastolic effect of exogenous NO in the thoracic artery of prenatal hypothyroidism exposed fetuses.

Risk Factors from Pregnancy to Adulthood in Multiple Sclerosis Outcome

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease characterized by a robust inflammatory response against myelin sheath antigens, which causes astrocyte and microglial activation and demyelination of the central nervous system (CNS). Multiple genetic predispositions and environmental factors are known to influence the immune response in autoimmune diseases, such as MS, and in the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model. Although the predisposition to suffer from MS seems to be a multifactorial process, a highly sensitive period is pregnancy due to factors that alter the development and differentiation of the CNS and the immune system, which increases the offspring’s susceptibility to develop MS. In this regard, there is evidence that thyroid hormone deficiency during gestation, such as hypothyroidism or hypothyroxinemia, may increase susceptibility to autoimmune diseases such as MS. In this review, we discuss the relevance of the gestational period for the development of MS in adulthood.

Protein Restriction in the Peri-Pubertal Period Induces Autonomic Dysfunction and Cardiac and Vascular Structural Changes in Adult Rats

Perturbations to nutrition during critical periods are associated with changes in embryonic, fetal or postnatal developmental patterns that may render the offspring more likely to develop cardiovascular disease in later life. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether autonomic nervous system imbalance underpins in the long-term hypertension induced by dietary protein restriction during peri-pubertal period. Male Wistar rats were assigned to groups fed with a low protein (4% protein, LP) or control diet (20.5% protein; NP) during peri-puberty, from post-natal day (PN) 30 until PN60, and then all were returned to a normal protein diet until evaluation of cardiovascular and autonomic function at PN120. LP rats showed long-term increased mean arterial pressure (p = 0.002) and sympathetic arousal; increased power of the low frequency (LF) band of the arterial pressure spectral (p = 0.080) compared with NP animals. The depressor response to the ganglion blocker hexamethonium was increased in LP compared with control animals (p = 0.006). Pulse interval variability showed an increase in the LF band and LF/HF ratio (p = 0.062 and p = 0.048) in LP animals. The cardiac response to atenolol and/or methylatropine and the baroreflex sensitivity were similar between groups. LP animals showed ventricular hypertrophy (p = 0.044) and increased interstitial fibrosis (p = 0.028) compared with controls. Reduced protein carbonyls (PC) (p = 0.030) and catalase activity (p = 0.001) were observed in hearts from LP animals compared with control. In the brainstem, the levels of PC (p = 0.002) and the activity of superoxide dismutase and catalase (p = 0.044 and p = 0.012) were reduced in LP animals, while the levels of GSH and total glutathione were higher (p = 0.039 and p = 0.038) compared with NP animals. Protein restriction during peri-pubertal period leads to hypertension later in life accompanied by sustained sympathetic arousal, which may be associated with a disorganization of brain and cardiac redox state and structural cardiac alteration.

Region-specific effects of antenatal/early postnatal hypothyroidism on endothelial NO-pathway activity in systemic circulation

Background

Antenatal/early postnatal hypothyroidism weakens NO-mediated anticontractile influence of endothelium in coronary arteries of adult rats, but it remains unclear whether this occurs in other vascular regions. We hypothesized that developmental thyroid deficiency is followed by region-specific changes in the endothelial NO-pathway activity in systemic vasculature. To explore this, we estimated the effects of antenatal/early postnatal hypothyroidism on NO-pathway activity and its potential local control mechanisms in rat mesenteric and skeletal muscle (sural) arteries.

Methods

Dams were treated with 6-propyl-2-thiouracil (PTU) in drinking water (0.0007%) during pregnancy and 2 weeks postpartum; control (CON) females received PTU-free water. Adult offspring (10–12-weeks) arteries were studied by wire myography, qPCR, and Western blotting.

Results

Endothelium removal or inhibition of NO-synthase with L-NNA augmented contractile responses to α₁-adrenoceptor agonist methoxamine. In PTU compared to CON group, these effects were stronger in sural arteries, but did not differ in mesenteric arteries. The responses of both arteries to NO-donor DEA/NO were similar in CON and PTU rats. mRNA contents of deiodinase 2 and thyroid hormone receptor α were similar in mesenteric arteries of two groups but were elevated in sural arteries of PTU group compared to CON. The abundance of eNOS protein was higher in sural arteries of PTU compared to CON rats.

Conclusion

Antenatal/early postnatal hypothyroidism is followed by an increase in NO-mediated anticontractile influence in sural, but not in mesenteric arteries of adult animals. The diversity of hypothyroidism effects may be due to different alterations of local T3 synthesis/reception in different vascular beds.

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Antenatal hypothyroidism increases anticontractile NO-effect in sural arteries.

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Antenatal hypothyroidism doesn't change anticontractile effect in mesenteric arteries.

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Diverse hypothyroidism effects may be due to the differences in local T3 signaling.

Changes in Endothelial Nitric Oxide Production in Systemic Vessels during Early Ontogenesis-A Key Mechanism for the Perinatal Adaptation of the Circulatory System

Nitric oxide (NO) produced in the wall of blood vessels is necessary for the regulation of vascular tone to ensure an adequate blood supply of organs and tissues. In this review, we present evidence that the functioning of endothelial NO-synthase (eNOS) changes considerably during postnatal maturation. Alterations in NO-ergic vasoregulation in early ontogeny vary between vascular beds and correlate with the functional reorganization of a particular organ. Importantly, the anticontractile effect of NO can be an important mechanism responsible for the protectively low blood pressure in the immature circulatory system. The activity of eNOS is regulated by a number of hormones, including thyroid hormones which are key regulators of the perinatal developmental processes. Maternal thyroid hormone deficiency suppresses the anticontractile effect of NO at perinatal age. Such alterations disturb perinatal cardiovascular homeostasis and lead to delayed occurring cardiovascular pathologies in adulthood. The newly discovered role of thyroid hormones may have broad implications in cardiovascular medicine, considering the extremely high prevalence of maternal hypothyroidism in human society.

Effects of a rat model of gestational hypothyroidism on forebrain dopaminergic, GABAergic, and serotonergic systems and related behaviors

We investigated the effects of maternal hypothyroidism on forebrain dopaminergic, GABAergic, and serotonergic systems and related behavior in adult rat offspring. Experimental gestational hypothyroidism (EGH) was induced by administering 0.02% methimazole (MMI) to pregnant rats from gestational day 9 to delivery. Neurotransmitter-related protein and gene expression were evaluated in offspring forebrain at postnatal day (P) 120. Exploratory behavior, contextual fear conditioning, locomotion, and 30-day reserpine Parkinson induction were assessed from P75-P120. Protein and gene expression assessments of medial prefrontal cortex showed group differences in dopaminergic, GABAergic, and serotonergic receptors, catabolic enzymes, and transporters. Striatum of MMI offspring showed an isolated decrease in the dopaminergic enzyme, tyrosine hydroxylase. MMI exposure increased GABA and dopamine receptor expression in amygdala. MMI offspring also had decreased state anxiety and poor contextual fear conditioning. We found that baseline locomotion was not changed, but reserpine treatment significantly reduced locomotion only in MMI offspring. Our results indicated that restriction of maternal thyroid hormones reduced dopaminergic, GABAergic, and serotoninergic forebrain components in offspring. Tyrosine hydroxylase deficiency in the striatum may underlie enhanced reserpine induction of Parkinson-like movement in these same offspring. Deficits across different neurotransmitter systems in medial prefrontal cortex and amygdala may underlie decreased state anxiety-like behavior and reduced fear conditioning in offspring, but no changes in trait anxiety-like behavior occurred with maternal MMI exposure. These findings strongly support the hypothesis that adequate delivery of maternal thyroid hormones to the fetus is crucial to the development of the central nervous system critical for emotion and motor regulation.

Moderate Physical Training Ameliorates Cardiovascular Dysfunction Induced by High Fat Diet After Cessation of Training in Adult Rats

We aimed to test whether moderate physical training can induce long-lasting protection against cardiovascular risk factors induced by high fat diet (HFD) intake, even after cessation of training. 90-days-old Wistar rats were submitted to a sedentary lifestyle or moderate physical training, three times a week, for 30 days. Following this, at 120 days-of age, sedentary and trained rats received a hypercaloric diet (HFD) or a commercial diet normal fat diet (NFD) for 30 days. Body weight (BW) and food intake were evaluated weekly. At 150 days-of age, hemodynamic measures (systolic, diastolic, mean blood pressure, pulse pressure, pulse interval and heart rate) were made via an indwelling femoral artery catheter. Beat-to-beat data were analyzed to calculate power spectra of systolic blood pressure (SBP) and pulse interval. After euthanasia, mesenteric fat pads were removed and weighted and total blood was stored for later analysis of lipid profile. Consumption of a HFD increased blood pressure (BP), pulse pressure, low frequency BP variability, BW gain, fat pad stores and induced dyslipidemia. Interestingly, prior physical training was able to partially protect against this rise in BP and body fat stores. Prior physical training did not totally protect against the effects of HFD consumption but previously trained animals did demonstrate resistance to the development of cardiometabolic alterations, which illustrate that the benefits of physical training may be partially maintained even after 30 days of detraining period.

Antenatal/early postnatal hypothyroidism increases the contribution of Rho-kinase to contractile responses of mesenteric and skeletal muscle arteries in adult rats

BACKGROUND

Maternal thyroid deficiency can increase Rho-kinase procontractile influence in arteries of 2-week-old progeny. Here we hypothesized that augmented role of Rho-kinase persists in arteries from adult progeny of hypothyroid rats.

METHODS

Dams were treated with 6-propyl-2-thiouracil (PTU) in drinking water (0.0007%) during pregnancy and 2 weeks postpartum; control (CON) females received PTU-free water. At the age of 10-12-weeks, serum T₃/T₄ levels did not differ between PTU and CON male offspring. Cutaneous (saphenous), mesenteric, and skeletal muscle (sural) arteries were studied by wire myography, qPCR, and Western blotting.

RESULTS

Saphenous arteries of PTU and CON groups showed similar responses to α₁-adrenoceptor agonist methoxamine and were equally suppressed by Rho-kinase inhibitor Y27632. Responses of mesenteric arteries also did not differ between PTU and CON, but the effects of Y27632 were more prominent in the PTU group. Sural arteries of PTU rats compared to CON demonstrated augmented responses to methoxamine, increased RhoA mRNA contents and higher levels of MYPT1 phosphorylation at Thr⁸⁵⁵. Intergroup differences in contractile responses and phospho-MYPT1-Thr⁸⁵⁵ were eliminated by Y27632.

CONCLUSION

Rho-kinase contribution to contractile responses of mesenteric and especially sural arteries is augmented in adult PTU rats. Therefore, maternal thyroid deficiency may have long-term detrimental consequences for vasculature in adult offspring.

NO-mediated anticontractile effect of the endothelium is abolished in coronary arteries of adult rats with antenatal/early postnatal hypothyroidism

INTRODUCTION

Thyroid hormones are essential for proper development of many systems and organs, including circulatory system. Thyroid deficiency during pregnancy may affect the cardiovascular function in children early on and later in adulthood. However, long-term effects of early thyroid deficiency are poorly understood. We hypothesized that antenatal/early postnatal hypothyroidism will influence anticontractile effect of NO in coronary arteries of adult rats.

DESIGN AND METHODS

To model antenatal/early postnatal hypothyroidism dams were treated with 6-propyl-2-thiouracil (PTU) in drinking water (0.0007%, w/v) from the first day of pregnancy till 2 weeks after delivery. Control females were supplied with pure water. Their male offspring was grown up till the age of 10-12 weeks. Systolic blood pressure was measured using tail cuff method. Septal coronary arteries were isolated and studied in wire myograph. Blood serum thyroid hormones concentrations (ELISA) and NO metabolites level (Griess method) were evaluated.

RESULTS

At the age of 10-12 weeks thyroid hormones, TSH concentrations, NO metabolites and systolic blood pressure level didn't differ between groups. Arterial responses to acetylcholine and exogenous NO-donor DEA/NO were similar in control and PTU groups. Along with that, in control rats endothelium denudation strongly potentiated basal tone of arteries and their contractile responses to thromboxane A2 receptor agonist U46619. The effects of endothelium denudation were absent in PTU rats indicating that anticontractile effect of endothelium is abolished in their arteries. Further, NO-synthase inhibitor L-NNA (100 μM) caused significant elevation of basal tone and increased U46619-induced contraction of endothelium-intact arteries only in control rats, while had no effect in PTU group.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data demonstrate that NO-mediated anticontractile effect of endothelium is eliminated in coronary arteries of adult rats, which suffered from antenatal/early postnatal hypothyroidism. Therefore, maternal thyroid hormones deficiency may have detrimental consequences in adult offspring including coronary circulation pathologies, despite normal blood levels of thyroid hormones.

The effect of maternal hypothyroidism on cardiac function and tolerance to ischemia-reperfusion injury in offspring male and female rats

PURPOSE

Accumulating evidence indicates that intrauterine evolution disturbance can contribute to myocardial ischemia reperfusion (IR) injury; in addition, thyroid hormones (THs) have a crucial role in the development of different systems during fetal life. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of TH deficiency during fetal life on tolerance of isolated heart to ischemia during adulthood in both genders.

METHODS

Hypothyroidism was induced in pregnant Wistar rats by administrating 0.025 % 6-propyl-2-thiouracil in drinking water throughout pregnancy. Offspring of rats with maternal hypothyroidism (MH) and control groups were tested in adulthood. Isolated hearts were perfused with Langendorff setup and exposed to 30 min of ischemia, followed by 45 min of reperfusion. Baseline values of the left ventricular end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP), left ventricular developed pressure (LVDP), heart rate (HR), and peak rates of positive and negative changes in left ventricular pressure (±dp/dt) were recorded.

RESULTS

In the MH groups the baseline levels of LVDP (male: 23 %, female: 33 %), HR (male: 31 %, female: 26 %), and ±dp/dt were significantly (p < 0.01) lower, compared to controls. After ischemia, hearts from male rats with MH had less tolerance to IR injury as assessed in terms of reductions in recovery of hemodynamic parameters compared to controls, while in female rats there were no significant differences between MH and controls.

CONCLUSIONS

MH decreases hemodynamic parameters in the heart of both male and female offspring in adulthood; in addition, hearts of male rats with MH show less tolerance to ischemia, compared to those of females.

Maternal thyroid hormones during pregnancy, childhood adiposity and cardiovascular risk factors: the Generation R Study

OBJECTIVE

Variation in maternal thyroid function during early pregnancy may permanently affect childhood growth and cardiovascular development. We examined the associations of early pregnancy maternal TSH and free T4 (FT4) levels with childhood growth, body composition and cardiovascular characteristics.

METHODS

We performed a population-based prospective cohort study among 5646 mothers and their children. Maternal thyroid parameters were assessed in early pregnancy (median: 13·2 weeks; 95% range: 9·7-17·6 weeks). Childhood growth was repeatedly measured from birth to 6 years. At the age of 6 years, childhood body mass index (BMI), total body and abdominal fat distribution, blood pressure and left ventricular mass were measured.

RESULTS

Maternal thyroid parameters were not consistently associated with childhood length and weight growth characteristics. Lower maternal TSH levels were associated with lower childhood BMI, total fat mass, abdominal subcutaneous fat mass area and diastolic blood pressure (P-values <0·05), but not with preperitoneal abdominal fat mass area, systolic blood pressure or left ventricular mass. Higher maternal FT4 levels were associated with lower childhood BMI, abdominal subcutaneous and preperitoneal fat mass area (P for trends <0·05), but not with other cardiovascular characteristics. Clinically maternal hypothyroid or hyperthyroid statuses were not associated with childhood growth, body fat or cardiovascular outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal thyroid function during early pregnancy may influence childhood body composition and cardiovascular development. Further studies are needed to replicate these findings and to examine the influence of maternal thyroid hormone levels during pregnancy on long-term growth and cardiovascular development in the offspring.