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Turnbull A, Poerio GL, Ho NS, Martinon LM, Riby LM, Lin FV, Jefferies E, Smallwood J. Age-related changes in ongoing thought relate to external context and individual cognition. Conscious Cogn 2021; 96:103226. [PMID: 34689074 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2021.103226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 10/10/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Understanding how age-related changes in cognition manifest in the real world is an important goal. One means of capturing these changes involves "experience sampling" participant's self-reported thoughts. Research has shown age-related changes in ongoing thought: e.g., older adults have fewer thoughts unrelated to the here-and-now. However, it is currently unclear how these changes reflect cognitive aging or lifestyle changes. 78 younger adults and 35 older adults rated their thought contents along 20 dimensions and the difficulty of their current activity in their daily lives. They also performed cognitive tasks in the laboratory. In a set of exploratory analyses, we found that older adults spent more time thinking positive, wanted thoughts, particularly in demanding contexts, and less time mind wandering about their future selves. Past-related thought related to episodic memory differently in older and younger adults. These findings inform the use of experience sampling to understand cognitive aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Turnbull
- School of Nursing, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, USA; Department of Imaging Sciences, University of Rochester, USA.
| | - Giulia L Poerio
- Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Colchester, UK
| | - Nerissa Sp Ho
- School of Psychology, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK
| | - Léa M Martinon
- LAPSCO CNRS UMR 6024, Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Leigh M Riby
- Department of Psychology, Northumbria University, Newcastle, UK
| | - Feng V Lin
- The Wu Tsai Neuroscience Institute, Stanford University, USA
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Cole S, Kvavilashvili L. Spontaneous and deliberate future thinking: a dual process account. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2021; 85:464-479. [PMID: 31807899 PMCID: PMC7900045 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-019-01262-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
In this article, we address an apparent paradox in the literature on mental time travel and mind-wandering: How is it possible that future thinking is both constructive, yet often experienced as occurring spontaneously? We identify and describe two 'routes' whereby episodic future thoughts are brought to consciousness, with each of the 'routes' being associated with separable cognitive processes and functions. Voluntary future thinking relies on controlled, deliberate and slow cognitive processing. The other, termed involuntary or spontaneous future thinking, relies on automatic processes that allows 'fully-fledged' episodic future thoughts to freely come to mind, often triggered by internal or external cues. To unravel the paradox, we propose that the majority of spontaneous future thoughts are 'pre-made' (i.e., each spontaneous future thought is a re-iteration of a previously constructed future event), and therefore based on simple, well-understood, memory processes. We also propose that the pre-made hypothesis explains why spontaneous future thoughts occur rapidly, are similar to involuntary memories, and predominantly about upcoming tasks and goals. We also raise the possibility that spontaneous future thinking is the default mode of imagining the future. This dual process approach complements and extends standard theoretical approaches that emphasise constructive simulation, and outlines novel opportunities for researchers examining voluntary and spontaneous forms of future thinking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Cole
- School of Psychological and Social Sciences, York St John University, York, YO31 7EX, UK.
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Turnbull A, Garfinkel SN, Ho NSP, Critchley HD, Bernhardt BC, Jefferies E, Smallwood J. Word up - Experiential and neurocognitive evidence for associations between autistic symptomology and a preference for thinking in the form of words. Cortex 2020; 128:88-106. [PMID: 32325277 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2020.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Revised: 12/06/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Autism symptomology has a profound impact on cognitive and affective functioning, yet we know relatively little about how it shapes patterns of ongoing thought. In an exploratory study in a large population of neurotypical individuals, we used experience sampling to characterise the relationship between ongoing cognition and self-reported autistic traits. We found that with increasing autistic symptom score, cognition was characterised by thinking more in words than images. Analysis of structural neuroimaging data found that autistic traits linked to social interaction were associated with greater cortical thickness in a region of lingual gyrus (LG) within the occipital cortex. Analysis of resting state functional neuroimaging data found autistic traits were associated with stronger connectivity between the LG and a region of motor cortex. Importantly, the strength of connectivity between the LG and motor cortex moderated the link between autistic symptoms and thinking in words: individuals showing higher connectivity showed a stronger association between autistic traits and thinking in words. Together we provide behavioural and neural evidence linking autistic traits to the tendency to think in words which may be rooted in underlying cortical organisation. These observations lay the groundwork for research into the form and content of self-generated thoughts in individuals with the established diagnosis of autism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Turnbull
- Department of Psychology, University of York, York, United Kingdom.
| | - Sarah N Garfinkel
- Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | - Nerissa S P Ho
- Department of Psychology, University of York, York, United Kingdom
| | - Hugo D Critchley
- Sackler Centre for Consciousness Science, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | - Boris C Bernhardt
- Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
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Maillet D, Beaty RE, Adnan A, Fox KCR, Turner GR, Spreng RN. Aging and the wandering brain: Age-related differences in the neural correlates of stimulus-independent thoughts. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0223981. [PMID: 31613920 PMCID: PMC6793871 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0223981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2019] [Accepted: 10/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, several studies have indicated that healthy older adults exhibit a reduction in task-unrelated thoughts compared to young adults. However, much less is known regarding age-related differences in time spent engaging in stimulus-independent thoughts or in their neural correlates in the absence of an ongoing task. In the current study, we collected functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data while 29 young (mean age = 22y) and 22 older (mean age = 70y) adults underwent experience sampling in the absence of an ongoing task (i.e., at “rest”). Although both age groups reported spending a similar amount of time engaged in stimulus-independent thoughts, older adults rated their thoughts as more present-oriented (rather than atemporal) and more novel. Moreover, controlling for these age-related differences in content, we found that experiencing stimulus-independent thoughts was associated with increased posterior cingulate and left angular gyrus activation across age groups compared to exhibiting an external focus of attention. When experiencing stimulus-independent thoughts, younger adults engaged medial and left lateral prefrontal cortex as well as left superior temporal gyrus to a greater degree than older adults. Taken together, our results suggest that, in the absence of an ongoing task, although young and older adults spend a similar amount of time engaging in stimulus-independent thoughts, the content and neural correlates of these thoughts differ with age.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Maillet
- Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest Health Sciences, University of Toronto, North York, ON, Canada
- * E-mail:
| | - Roger E. Beaty
- Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States of America
| | - Areeba Adnan
- Department of Psychology, York University, Sherman Health Science Research Centre, Keele Campus, Toronto, Canada
| | - Kieran C. R. Fox
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of America
- School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States of America
| | - Gary R. Turner
- Department of Psychology, York University, Sherman Health Science Research Centre, Keele Campus, Toronto, Canada
| | - R. Nathan Spreng
- Laboratory of Brain and Cognition, Montreal Neurological Institute, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Departments of Psychology and Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
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Krieger-Redwood K, Wang HT, Poerio G, Martinon LM, Riby LM, Smallwood J, Jefferies E. Reduced semantic control in older adults is linked to intrinsic DMN connectivity. Neuropsychologia 2019; 132:107133. [PMID: 31278908 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2019.107133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Revised: 05/27/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Ageing provides an interesting window into semantic cognition: while younger adults generally outperform older adults on many cognitive tasks, knowledge continues to accumulate over the lifespan and consequently, the semantic store (i.e., vocabulary size) remains stable (or even improves) during healthy ageing. Semantic cognition involves the interaction of at least two components - a semantic store and control processes that interact to ensure efficient and context-relevant use of representations. Given older adults perform less well on tasks measuring executive control, their ability to access the semantic store in a goal driven manner may be compromised. Older adults also consistently show reductions in intrinsic brain connectivity, and we examined how these brain changes relate to age-related changes in semantic performance. We found that while older participants outperformed their younger counterparts on tests of vocabulary size (i.e., NART), younger participants were faster and more accurate in tasks requiring semantic control, and these age differences correlated with measures of intrinsic connectivity between the anterior temporal lobe (ATL) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), within the default mode network. Higher intrinsic connectivity from right ATL to mPFC at rest related to better performance on verbal (but not picture) semantic tasks, and older adults showed an exaggerated version of this pattern, suggesting that this within-DMN connectivity may become more important for conceptual access from words as we age. However, this appeared to be at the expense of control over semantic retrieval - there was little relationship between connectivity and performance for strong associations in either group, but older adults with stronger connectivity showed particularly inefficient retrieval of weak associations. Older adults may struggle to harness the default mode network to support demanding patterns of semantic retrieval, resulting in a performance cost.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hao-Ting Wang
- Department of Psychology, University of York, York, UK
| | - Giulia Poerio
- Department of Psychology, University of York, York, UK; Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Léa M Martinon
- Department of Psychology, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK
| | - Leigh M Riby
- Department of Psychology, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK
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