1
|
Yang S, Miao C, Liu W, Zhang G, Shao J, Chang H. Structure and function of African swine fever virus proteins: Current understanding. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1043129. [PMID: 36846791 PMCID: PMC9950752 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1043129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023] Open
Abstract
African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a highly infectious and lethal double-stranded DNA virus that is responsible for African swine fever (ASF). ASFV was first reported in Kenya in 1921. Subsequently, ASFV has spread to countries in Western Europe, Latin America, and Eastern Europe, as well as to China in 2018. ASFV epidemics have caused serious pig industry losses around the world. Since the 1960s, much effort has been devoted to the development of an effective ASF vaccine, including the production of inactivated vaccines, attenuated live vaccines, and subunit vaccines. Progress has been made, but unfortunately, no ASF vaccine has prevented epidemic spread of the virus in pig farms. The complex ASFV structure, comprising a variety of structural and non-structural proteins, has made the development of ASF vaccines difficult. Therefore, it is necessary to fully explore the structure and function of ASFV proteins in order to develop an effective ASF vaccine. In this review, we summarize what is known about the structure and function of ASFV proteins, including the most recently published findings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Wei Liu
- African Swine Fever Regional Laboratory of China (Lanzhou), State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
| | - Guanglei Zhang
- African Swine Fever Regional Laboratory of China (Lanzhou), State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
2
|
Medicinal Herbs and Their Derived Ingredients Protect against Cognitive Decline in In Vivo Models of Alzheimer’s Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms231911311. [PMID: 36232612 PMCID: PMC9569503 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231911311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2022] [Revised: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has pathological hallmarks including amyloid beta (Aβ) plaque formation. Currently approved single-target drugs cannot effectively ameliorate AD. Medicinal herbs and their derived ingredients (MHDIs) have multitarget and multichannel properties, engendering exceptional AD treatment outcomes. This review delineates how in in vivo models MHDIs suppress Aβ deposition by downregulating β- and γ-secretase activities; inhibit oxidative stress by enhancing the antioxidant activities and reducing lipid peroxidation; prevent tau hyperphosphorylation by upregulating protein phosphatase 2A expression and downregulating glycogen synthase kinase-3β expression; reduce inflammatory mediators partly by upregulating brain-derived neurotrophic factor/extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1/2-mediated signaling and downregulating p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK)/c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)-mediated signaling; attenuate synaptic dysfunction by increasing presynaptic protein, postsynaptic protein, and acetylcholine levels and preventing acetylcholinesterase activity; and protect against neuronal apoptosis mainly by upregulating Akt/cyclic AMP response element-binding protein/B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2)-mediated anti-apoptotic signaling and downregulating p38 MAPK/JNK/Bcl-2-associated x protein (Bax)/caspase-3-, Bax/apoptosis-inducing factor-, C/EBP homologous protein/glucose-regulated protein 78-, and autophagy-mediated apoptotic signaling. Therefore, MHDIs listed in this review protect against Aβ-induced cognitive decline by inhibiting Aβ accumulation, oxidative stress, tau hyperphosphorylation, inflammation, synaptic damage, and neuronal apoptosis in the cortex and hippocampus during the early and late AD phases.
Collapse
|
3
|
Lambert N, Moïse M, Nguyen L. E3 Ubiquitin ligases and cerebral cortex development in health and disease. Dev Neurobiol 2022; 82:392-407. [PMID: 35476229 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Revised: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Cerebral cortex development involves the sequential progression of biological steps driven by molecular pathways whose tight regulation often relies on ubiquitination. Ubiquitination is a post-translational modification involved in all aspects of cellular homeostasis through the attachment of a ubiquitin moiety on proteins. Over the past years, an increasing amount of research has highlighted the crucial role played by ubiquitin ligases in every step of cortical development and whose impairment often leads to various neurodevelopmental disorders. In this review, we focus on the key contributions of E3 ubiquitin ligases for the progression of the different steps of corticogenesis, as well as the pathological consequences of their mutations, often resulting in malformations of cortical development. Finally, we discuss some promising targeted treatment strategies for these diseases based on recent advances in the field. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Lambert
- Laboratory of molecular regulation of neurogenesis, GIGA-Stem Cells and GIGA-Neurosciences, Interdisciplinary Cluster for Applied Genoproteomics (GIGA-R), University of Liège, CHU Sart Tilman, Liège, 4000, Belgium.,Department of Neurology, University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Martin Moïse
- Laboratory of molecular regulation of neurogenesis, GIGA-Stem Cells and GIGA-Neurosciences, Interdisciplinary Cluster for Applied Genoproteomics (GIGA-R), University of Liège, CHU Sart Tilman, Liège, 4000, Belgium.,Department of Radiology, University Hospital of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Laurent Nguyen
- Laboratory of molecular regulation of neurogenesis, GIGA-Stem Cells and GIGA-Neurosciences, Interdisciplinary Cluster for Applied Genoproteomics (GIGA-R), University of Liège, CHU Sart Tilman, Liège, 4000, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Weng G, Zhou B, Liu T, Huang Z, Huang S. Tetramethylpyrazine Improves Cognitive Function of Alzheimer's Disease Mice by Regulating SSTR4 Ubiquitination. DRUG DESIGN DEVELOPMENT AND THERAPY 2021; 15:2385-2399. [PMID: 34103899 PMCID: PMC8179737 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s290030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Purpose Many researches have investigated the functions of tetramethylpyrazine (TMP) in Alzheimer's disease (AD). This study aimed to discuss the underlying mechanism of TMP in AD mice. Methods TMP (200 mg/kg) was administered to 6-month-old APP/PS1 transgenic mice, and behavioral changes and hippocampal nerve injury in AD mice were detected. Apoptosis and autophagy-related protein levels were detected. Changes in gene expression before and after TMP treatment were compared using transcriptome sequencing. The effects of Cullin 4B (CUL4B) overexpression and somatostatin receptor 4 (SSTR4) silencing on AD symptoms and SSTR4 ubiquitination in APP/PS1 mice were observed. SH-SY5Y and PC12 cells were treated with 25 μmol/L Aβ25-35 and TMP to observe cell viability, apoptosis, and autophagy. Cell viability and apoptosis were measured again after treatment with proteasome inhibitor MG132 or lysosomal inhibitor 3-mA. Results TMP treatment improved the behavioral cognition of APP/PS1 mice and improved the neuronal apoptosis and damage in brain tissue. CUL4B was significantly upregulated in APP/PS1 mouse brain tissue, and SSRT4 protein was downregulated, and the levels of CUL4B and SSRT4 were negatively correlated. TMP treatment downregulated CUL4B, inhibited SSRT4 ubiquitination and upregulated SSRT4 protein level in APP/PS1 mouse brain tissue, while CUL4B overexpression or SSRT4 silencing reversed the effect of TMP. TMP and MG132 improved the decreased activity, increased apoptosis and increased SSRT4 protein in SH-SY5Y and PC12 cells treated with Aβ25-35, but not 3-mA. CUL4B overexpression promoted the ubiquitination of SSTR4 in cells, which partially reversed the effect of TMP. Conclusion TMP could improve the cognitive ability of AD mice by inhibiting CUL4B expression and the ubiquitination degradation of SSTR, and alleviating neuronal apoptosis and injury. This study may offer a new therapeutic option for AD treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guohu Weng
- Department of Encephalopathy, Hainan Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Haikou, 570203, Hainan, People's Republic of China
| | - Bo Zhou
- Department of Cardiology, Hainan Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Haikou, 570203, Hainan, People's Republic of China
| | - Tao Liu
- Department of Neurology, Hainan General Hospital, Hainan Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical University, Haikou, 570311, Hainan, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhengxin Huang
- Department of Cardiology, Hainan Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Haikou, 570203, Hainan, People's Republic of China
| | - Shixiong Huang
- Department of Neurology, Hainan General Hospital, Hainan Affiliated Hospital of Hainan Medical University, Haikou, 570311, Hainan, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
A Destiny for Degradation: Interplay between Cullin-RING E3 Ligases and Autophagy. Trends Cell Biol 2021; 31:432-444. [PMID: 33573849 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcb.2021.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 01/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Autophagy and the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) are two major pathways for protein degradation. The cullin-RING E3 ligases (CRLs) are the largest E3 ligase family and have key biological functions in maintaining protein homeostasis. We provide an updated review of the interactions between CRLs and autophagy, focusing on the regulatory effects of CRLs on the core autophagy machinery that consists of several autophagy-related protein (ATG) complexes and their key upstream signaling pathways. The involvement of such functional interactions in health and disease is also discussed. Understanding the role of CRLs in autophagy is helpful for the development of therapeutic strategies for diseases in which CRLs and autophagy are dysregulated, such as cancer and neurodegenerative conditions.
Collapse
|
6
|
Barrado-Gil L, Del Puerto A, Muñoz-Moreno R, Galindo I, Cuesta-Geijo MÁ, Urquiza J, Nistal-Villán E, Maluquer de Motes C, Alonso C. African Swine Fever Virus Ubiquitin-Conjugating Enzyme Interacts With Host Translation Machinery to Regulate the Host Protein Synthesis. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:622907. [PMID: 33384682 PMCID: PMC7771050 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.622907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
African Swine Fever virus (ASFV) causes one of the most relevant emerging diseases affecting swine, now extended through three continents. The virus has a large coding capacity to deploy an arsenal of molecules antagonizing the host functions. In the present work, we have studied the only known E2 viral-conjugating enzyme, UBCv1 that is encoded by the I215L gene of ASFV. UBCv1 was expressed as an early expression protein that accumulates throughout the course of infection. This versatile protein, bound several types of polyubiquitin chains and its catalytic domain was required for enzymatic activity. High throughput mass spectrometry analysis in combination with a screening of an alveolar macrophage library was used to identify and characterize novel UBCv1-host interactors. The analysis revealed interaction with the 40S ribosomal protein RPS23, the cap-dependent translation machinery initiation factor eIF4E, and the E3 ubiquitin ligase Cullin 4B. Our data show that during ASFV infection, UBCv1 was able to bind to eIF4E, independent from the cap-dependent complex. Our results provide novel insights into the function of the viral UBCv1 in hijacking cellular components that impact the mTORC signaling pathway, the regulation of the host translation machinery, and the cellular protein expression during the ASFV lifecycle.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lucía Barrado-Gil
- Department of Biotechnology, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Del Puerto
- Department of Biotechnology, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Madrid, Spain
| | - Raquel Muñoz-Moreno
- Department of Biotechnology, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Madrid, Spain
| | - Inmaculada Galindo
- Department of Biotechnology, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Madrid, Spain
| | - Miguel Ángel Cuesta-Geijo
- Department of Biotechnology, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Madrid, Spain
| | - Jesús Urquiza
- Department of Biotechnology, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Madrid, Spain
| | - Estanislao Nistal-Villán
- Microbiology Section, Departamento Ciencias Farmacéuticas y de la Salud, Facultad de Farmacia, Instituto de Medicina Molecular Aplicada (IMMA), Madrid, Spain
| | - Carlos Maluquer de Motes
- Department of Microbial Sciences, School of Biosciences and Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom
| | - Covadonga Alonso
- Department of Biotechnology, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA), Madrid, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Kouloulia S, Hallin EI, Simbriger K, Amorim IS, Lach G, Amvrosiadis T, Chalkiadaki K, Kampaite A, Truong VT, Hooshmandi M, Jafarnejad SM, Skehel P, Kursula P, Khoutorsky A, Gkogkas CG. Raptor-Mediated Proteasomal Degradation of Deamidated 4E-BP2 Regulates Postnatal Neuronal Translation and NF-κB Activity. Cell Rep 2020; 29:3620-3635.e7. [PMID: 31825840 PMCID: PMC6915327 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.11.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2019] [Revised: 09/06/2019] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The translation initiation repressor 4E-BP2 is deamidated in the brain on asparagines N99/N102 during early postnatal brain development. This post-translational modification enhances 4E-BP2 association with Raptor, a central component of mTORC1 and alters the kinetics of excitatory synaptic transmission. We show that 4E-BP2 deamidation is neuron specific, occurs in the human brain, and changes 4E-BP2 subcellular localization, but not its disordered structure state. We demonstrate that deamidated 4E-BP2 is ubiquitinated more and degrades faster than the unmodified protein. We find that enhanced deamidated 4E-BP2 degradation is dependent on Raptor binding, concomitant with increased association with a Raptor-CUL4B E3 ubiquitin ligase complex. Deamidated 4E-BP2 stability is promoted by inhibiting mTORC1 or glutamate receptors. We further demonstrate that deamidated 4E-BP2 regulates the translation of a distinct pool of mRNAs linked to cerebral development, mitochondria, and NF-κB activity, and thus may be crucial for postnatal brain development in neurodevelopmental disorders, such as ASD. Deamidated 4E-BP2 occurs in neurons and is susceptible to ubiquitination/degradation mTORC1 or glutamate receptor inhibition stabilizes deamidated 4E-BP2 A Raptor-CUL4B ubiquitin ligase complex binds to deamidated 4E-BP2 Deamidated 4E-BP2 regulates postnatal brain translation and NF-κB activity
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stella Kouloulia
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences and Patrick Wild Centre, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, UK
| | - Erik I Hallin
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen N-5020, Norway
| | - Konstanze Simbriger
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences and Patrick Wild Centre, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, UK
| | - Inês S Amorim
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences and Patrick Wild Centre, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, UK
| | - Gilliard Lach
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences and Patrick Wild Centre, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, UK
| | - Theoklitos Amvrosiadis
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences and Patrick Wild Centre, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, UK
| | - Kleanthi Chalkiadaki
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences and Patrick Wild Centre, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, UK
| | - Agniete Kampaite
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences and Patrick Wild Centre, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, UK
| | - Vinh Tai Truong
- Department of Anesthesia and Alan Edwards Centre for Research on Pain, McGill University, Montréal H3A 0G1, QC, Canada
| | - Mehdi Hooshmandi
- Department of Anesthesia and Alan Edwards Centre for Research on Pain, McGill University, Montréal H3A 0G1, QC, Canada
| | - Seyed Mehdi Jafarnejad
- Centre for Cancer Research and Cell Biology, Queen's University of Belfast, Belfast BT9 7AE, UK
| | - Paul Skehel
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences and Patrick Wild Centre, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, UK
| | - Petri Kursula
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen N-5020, Norway; Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Oulu, Oulu FI-90014, Finland
| | - Arkady Khoutorsky
- Department of Anesthesia and Alan Edwards Centre for Research on Pain, McGill University, Montréal H3A 0G1, QC, Canada.
| | - Christos G Gkogkas
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences and Patrick Wild Centre, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, UK; Simons Initiative for the Developing Brain, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Folci A, Mirabella F, Fossati M. Ubiquitin and Ubiquitin-Like Proteins in the Critical Equilibrium between Synapse Physiology and Intellectual Disability. eNeuro 2020; 7:ENEURO.0137-20.2020. [PMID: 32719102 PMCID: PMC7544190 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0137-20.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Revised: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Posttranslational modifications (PTMs) represent a dynamic regulatory system that precisely modulates the functional organization of synapses. PTMs consist in target modifications by small chemical moieties or conjugation of lipids, sugars or polypeptides. Among them, ubiquitin and a large family of ubiquitin-like proteins (UBLs) share several features such as the structure of the small protein modifiers, the enzymatic cascades mediating the conjugation process, and the targeted aminoacidic residue. In the brain, ubiquitination and two UBLs, namely sumoylation and the recently discovered neddylation orchestrate fundamental processes including synapse formation, maturation and plasticity, and their alteration is thought to contribute to the development of neurological disorders. Remarkably, emerging evidence suggests that these pathways tightly interplay to modulate the function of several proteins that possess pivotal roles for brain homeostasis as well as failure of this crosstalk seems to be implicated in the development of brain pathologies. In this review, we outline the role of ubiquitination, sumoylation, neddylation, and their functional interplay in synapse physiology and discuss their implication in the molecular pathogenesis of intellectual disability (ID), a neurodevelopmental disorder that is frequently comorbid with a wide spectrum of brain pathologies. Finally, we propose a few outlooks that might contribute to better understand the complexity of these regulatory systems in regard to neuronal circuit pathophysiology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Folci
- Humanitas Clinical and Research Center-IRCCS, via Manzoni 56, 20089, Rozzano (MI), Italy
| | - Filippo Mirabella
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Via Rita Levi Montalcini 4, 20090 Pieve 9 Emanuele - Milan, Italy
| | - Matteo Fossati
- Humanitas Clinical and Research Center-IRCCS, via Manzoni 56, 20089, Rozzano (MI), Italy
- CNR-Institute of Neuroscience, via Manzoni 56, 20089, Rozzano (MI), Italy
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Lopes F, Torres F, Soares G, Barbosa M, Silva J, Duque F, Rocha M, Sá J, Oliveira G, Sá MJ, Temudo T, Sousa S, Marques C, Lopes S, Gomes C, Barros G, Jorge A, Rocha F, Martins C, Mesquita S, Loureiro S, Cardoso EM, Cálix MJ, Dias A, Martins C, Mota CR, Antunes D, Dupont J, Figueiredo S, Figueiroa S, Gama-de-Sousa S, Cruz S, Sampaio A, Eijk P, Weiss MM, Ylstra B, Rendeiro P, Tavares P, Reis-Lima M, Pinto-Basto J, Fortuna AM, Maciel P. Genomic imbalances defining novel intellectual disability associated loci. Orphanet J Rare Dis 2019; 14:164. [PMID: 31277718 PMCID: PMC6612161 DOI: 10.1186/s13023-019-1135-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background High resolution genome-wide copy number analysis, routinely used in clinical diagnosis for several years, retrieves new and extremely rare copy number variations (CNVs) that provide novel candidate genes contributing to disease etiology. The aim of this work was to identify novel genetic causes of neurodevelopmental disease, inferred from CNVs detected by array comparative hybridization (aCGH), in a cohort of 325 Portuguese patients with intellectual disability (ID). Results We have detected CNVs in 30.1% of the patients, of which 5.2% corresponded to novel likely pathogenic CNVs. For these 11 rare CNVs (which encompass novel ID candidate genes), we identified those most likely to be relevant, and established genotype-phenotype correlations based on detailed clinical assessment. In the case of duplications, we performed expression analysis to assess the impact of the rearrangement. Interestingly, these novel candidate genes belong to known ID-related pathways. Within the 8% of patients with CNVs in known pathogenic loci, the majority had a clinical presentation fitting the phenotype(s) described in the literature, with a few interesting exceptions that are discussed. Conclusions Identification of such rare CNVs (some of which reported for the first time in ID patients/families) contributes to our understanding of the etiology of ID and for the ever-improving diagnosis of this group of patients. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13023-019-1135-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fátima Lopes
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Fátima Torres
- CGC Genetics, Porto, Portugal.,Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Gabriela Soares
- Center for Medical Genetics Dr. Jacinto Magalhães, Porto Hospital Center, Praça Pedro Nunes, Porto, Portugal
| | - Mafalda Barbosa
- Center for Medical Genetics Dr. Jacinto Magalhães, Porto Hospital Center, Praça Pedro Nunes, Porto, Portugal.,Unit for Multidisciplinary Research in Biomedicine, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,The Mindich Child Health & Development Institute and the Department of Genetics & Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA.,The Seaver Autism Center for Research and Treatment, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA.,Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - João Silva
- Center for Medical Genetics Dr. Jacinto Magalhães, Porto Hospital Center, Praça Pedro Nunes, Porto, Portugal.,Centro de Genética Preditiva e Preventiva - CGPP, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular - IBMC, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde - i3S, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Frederico Duque
- Unidade de Neurodesenvolvimento e Autismo do Serviço do Centro de Desenvolvimento da Criança and Centro de Investigação e Formação Clínica, Pediatric Hospital, Centro Hospitalar e Universitário de Coimbra, 3041-80, Coimbra, Portugal.,University Clinic of Pediatrics and Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Life Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Miguel Rocha
- Center for Medical Genetics Dr. Jacinto Magalhães, Porto Hospital Center, Praça Pedro Nunes, Porto, Portugal.,Medical Genetics Unit, Hospital de Braga, Braga, Portugal
| | - Joaquim Sá
- CGC Genetics, Porto, Portugal.,Department of Medical Genetics, Hospital de Faro, Faro, Portugal
| | - Guiomar Oliveira
- Unidade de Neurodesenvolvimento e Autismo do Serviço do Centro de Desenvolvimento da Criança and Centro de Investigação e Formação Clínica, Pediatric Hospital, Centro Hospitalar e Universitário de Coimbra, 3041-80, Coimbra, Portugal.,University Clinic of Pediatrics and Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Life Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Maria João Sá
- Center for Medical Genetics Dr. Jacinto Magalhães, Porto Hospital Center, Praça Pedro Nunes, Porto, Portugal.,Unit for Multidisciplinary Research in Biomedicine, Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar (ICBAS), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Teresa Temudo
- Pediatric Neurology Department, Centro Materno-Infantil Centro Hospitalar do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Susana Sousa
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal.,Centro de Genética Preditiva e Preventiva - CGPP, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular - IBMC, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal.,Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde - i3S, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Carla Marques
- Unidade de Neurodesenvolvimento e Autismo do Serviço do Centro de Desenvolvimento da Criança and Centro de Investigação e Formação Clínica, Pediatric Hospital, Centro Hospitalar e Universitário de Coimbra, 3041-80, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Sofia Lopes
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Catarina Gomes
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Gisela Barros
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Arminda Jorge
- Development Unit, Pediatrics Service, Hospital Centre of Cova da Beira, Covilhã, Portugal.,CICS - Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Felisbela Rocha
- Department of Pediatrics, Médio Ave Hospital Center, Vila Nova de Famalicão, Portugal
| | - Cecília Martins
- Department of Pediatrics, Médio Ave Hospital Center, Vila Nova de Famalicão, Portugal
| | - Sandra Mesquita
- Development Unit, Pediatrics Service, Hospital Centre of Cova da Beira, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Susana Loureiro
- Department of Pediatrics, Hospital S. Teotónio, Tondela/Viseu Hospital Center, Viseu, Portugal
| | - Elisa Maria Cardoso
- Department of Pediatrics, Hospital S. Teotónio, Tondela/Viseu Hospital Center, Viseu, Portugal
| | - Maria José Cálix
- Department of Pediatrics, Hospital S. Teotónio, Tondela/Viseu Hospital Center, Viseu, Portugal
| | - Andreia Dias
- Department of Pediatrics, Hospital S. Teotónio, Tondela/Viseu Hospital Center, Viseu, Portugal
| | - Cristina Martins
- Neuropaediatric Unit - Garcia de Orta Hospital, Almada, Portugal
| | - Céu R Mota
- Pediatric and Neonatal Intensive Care, Department of Pediatrics, Porto Hospital Center, Porto, Portugal
| | - Diana Antunes
- Department of Genetics, Hospital D. Estefânia, Lisboa-Norte Hospital Center, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Juliette Dupont
- Genetics Service, Paediatric Department, University Hospital Santa Maria, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Sara Figueiredo
- Department of Pediatrics, Médio Ave Hospital Center, Santo Tirso, Portugal
| | - Sónia Figueiroa
- Division of Pediatric Neurology, Department of Child and Adolescent, Centro Hospitalar do Porto e Hospital de Santo António, Porto, Portugal
| | - Susana Gama-de-Sousa
- Department of Pediatrics, Médio Ave Hospital Center, Vila Nova de Famalicão, Portugal
| | - Sara Cruz
- Neuropsychophysiology Lab, CIPsi, School of Psychology, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
| | - Adriana Sampaio
- Neuropsychophysiology Lab, CIPsi, School of Psychology, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
| | - Paul Eijk
- Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, 1007, MB, The Netherlands
| | - Marjan M Weiss
- Department of Clinical Genetics, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, 1007, MB, The Netherlands
| | - Bauke Ylstra
- Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, 1007, MB, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Margarida Reis-Lima
- Center for Medical Genetics Dr. Jacinto Magalhães, Porto Hospital Center, Praça Pedro Nunes, Porto, Portugal.,GDPN- SYNLAB, Porto, Portugal
| | | | - Ana Maria Fortuna
- Center for Medical Genetics Dr. Jacinto Magalhães, Porto Hospital Center, Praça Pedro Nunes, Porto, Portugal
| | - Patrícia Maciel
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal. .,ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Cheon S, Dean M, Chahrour M. The ubiquitin proteasome pathway in neuropsychiatric disorders. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2018; 165:106791. [PMID: 29398581 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2018.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2017] [Revised: 01/19/2018] [Accepted: 01/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) is a highly conserved pathway that tightly regulates protein turnover in cells. This process is integral to neuronal development, differentiation, and function. Several members of the UPS are disrupted in neuropsychiatric disorders, highlighting the importance of this pathway in brain development and function. In this review, we discuss some of these pathway members, the molecular processes they regulate, and the potential for targeting the UPS in an effort to develop therapeutic strategies in neuropsychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Solmi Cheon
- Eugene McDermott Center for Human Growth and Development, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Milan Dean
- Eugene McDermott Center for Human Growth and Development, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Maria Chahrour
- Eugene McDermott Center for Human Growth and Development, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA; Departments of Neuroscience and Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Abstract
Cullin 4B (CUL4B) is a scaffold of the Cullin4B-Ring E3 ligase complex (CRL4B) that plays an important role in proteolysis and is implicated in tumorigenesis. Aberrant expression of CUL4B has been reported in various types of human diseases. Recently, studies have shown that CUL4B was overexpressed in a multitude of solid neoplasms and affect the expression of several tumor suppressor genes. In this review, we aim to summarize the biological function of CUL4B in order to better understand its pathogenesis in human cancers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ying Li
- Department of Hematology, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, No.324, Jingwu Road, Jinan, 250021 Shandong People's Republic of China
| | - Xin Wang
- Department of Hematology, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, No.324, Jingwu Road, Jinan, 250021 Shandong People's Republic of China.,Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, 250012 Shandong People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Yuan J, Jiang B, Zhang A, Qian Y, Tan H, Gao J, Shao C, Gong Y. Accelerated hepatocellular carcinoma development in CUL4B transgenic mice. Oncotarget 2016; 6:15209-21. [PMID: 25945838 PMCID: PMC4558146 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.3829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2015] [Accepted: 03/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Cullin 4B (CUL4B) is a component of the Cullin 4B-Ring E3 ligase (CRL4B) complex that functions in proteolysis and in epigenetic regulation. CUL4B possesses tumor-promoting properties and is markedly upregulated in many types of human cancers. To determine the role of CUL4B in liver tumorigenesis, we generated transgenic mice that expressed human CUL4B in livers and other tissues and evaluated the development of spontaneous and chemically-induced hepatocellular carcinomas. We observed that CUL4B transgenic mice spontaneously developed liver tumors at a high incidence at old ages and exhibited enhanced DEN-induced hepatocarcinogenesis. There was a high proliferation rate in the livers of CUL4B transgenic mice that was accompanied by increased levels of Cdk1, Cdk4 and cyclin D1 and decreased level of p16. The transgenic mice also exhibited increased compensatory proliferation after DEN-induced liver injury, which was accompanied by activation of Akt, Erk, p38 and NF-κB. We also found that Prdx3 was downregulated and that DEN induced a higher level of reactive oxygen species in the livers of transgenic mice. Together, our results demonstrate a critical role of CUL4B in hepatocarcinogenesis in mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jupeng Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology, Ministry of Education, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Baichun Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology, Ministry of Education, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Aizhen Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology, Ministry of Education, Shandong University School of Life Science, Jinan, China
| | - Yanyan Qian
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology, Ministry of Education, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Haining Tan
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology, Ministry of Education, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Jiangang Gao
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology, Ministry of Education, Shandong University School of Life Science, Jinan, China
| | - Changshun Shao
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology, Ministry of Education, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Yaoqin Gong
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology, Ministry of Education, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, China
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Qin X, Wang X, Liu F, Morris LE, Wang X, Jiang B, Zhang Y. Gankyrin activates mTORC1 signaling by accelerating TSC2 degradation in colorectal cancer. Cancer Lett 2016; 376:83-94. [PMID: 26975632 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2016.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2016] [Revised: 02/19/2016] [Accepted: 03/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Gankyrin is overexpressed in some malignancies. However its roles in colorectal carcinogenesis and underlying mechanisms remain largely unexplored. Here we report that gankyrin promotes the initiation and development of colorectal carcinogenesis by activating mTORC1 signaling through TSC/Rheb dependent mechanism. We further show that Gankyrin overexpression accelerated TSC2 degradation, while knockdown in a panel of colorectal cancer (CRC) cell lines, cell line derived xenografts and CRC patient derived xenograft (PDX) tumors delayed TSC2 degradation, restored the TSC2 protein level, and inhibited mTORC1 signaling and CRC growth. Our findings reveal a unique mechanism by which gankyrin promotes colorectal carcinogenesis and show that gankyrin is a potential therapeutic target to improve the clinical management of CRC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyu Qin
- Oncology Department, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 201900, China
| | - Xinxin Wang
- Oncology Department, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 201900, China
| | - Feng Liu
- Oncology Department, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 201900, China
| | - Laura E Morris
- Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ 08903, USA
| | - Xiaowen Wang
- Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ 08903, USA
| | - Bin Jiang
- Oncology Department, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 201900, China
| | - Yanjie Zhang
- Oncology Department, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 201900, China.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Vulto-van Silfhout AT, Nakagawa T, Bahi-Buisson N, Haas SA, Hu H, Bienek M, Vissers LELM, Gilissen C, Tzschach A, Busche A, Müsebeck J, Rump P, Mathijssen IB, Avela K, Somer M, Doagu F, Philips AK, Rauch A, Baumer A, Voesenek K, Poirier K, Vigneron J, Amram D, Odent S, Nawara M, Obersztyn E, Lenart J, Charzewska A, Lebrun N, Fischer U, Nillesen WM, Yntema HG, Järvelä I, Ropers HH, de Vries BBA, Brunner HG, van Bokhoven H, Raymond FL, Willemsen MAAP, Chelly J, Xiong Y, Barkovich AJ, Kalscheuer VM, Kleefstra T, de Brouwer APM. Variants in CUL4B are associated with cerebral malformations. Hum Mutat 2015; 36:106-17. [PMID: 25385192 DOI: 10.1002/humu.22718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2014] [Accepted: 10/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Variants in cullin 4B (CUL4B) are a known cause of syndromic X-linked intellectual disability. Here, we describe an additional 25 patients from 11 families with variants in CUL4B. We identified nine different novel variants in these families and confirmed the pathogenicity of all nontruncating variants. Neuroimaging data, available for 15 patients, showed the presence of cerebral malformations in ten patients. The cerebral anomalies comprised malformations of cortical development (MCD), ventriculomegaly, and diminished white matter volume. The phenotypic heterogeneity of the cerebral malformations might result from the involvement of CUL-4B in various cellular pathways essential for normal brain development. Accordingly, we show that CUL-4B interacts with WDR62, a protein in which variants were previously identified in patients with microcephaly and a wide range of MCD. This interaction might contribute to the development of cerebral malformations in patients with variants in CUL4B.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anneke T Vulto-van Silfhout
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences and Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud university medical center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Zhao W, Jiang B, Hu H, Zhang S, Lv S, Yuan J, Qian Y, Zou Y, Li X, Jiang H, Liu F, Shao C, Gong Y. Lack of CUL4B leads to increased abundance of GFAP-positive cells that is mediated by PTGDS in mouse brain. Hum Mol Genet 2015; 24:4686-97. [PMID: 26025376 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddv200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2015] [Accepted: 05/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Astrocytes are the most abundant cell type in the mammalian brain and are important for the functions of the central nervous system. Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) is regarded as a hallmark of mature astrocytes, though some GFPA-positive cells may act as neural stem cells. Missense heterozygous mutations in GFAP cause Alexander disease that manifests leukodystrophy and intellectual disability. Here, we show that CUL4B, a scaffold protein that assembles E3 ubiquitin ligase, represses the expression of GFAP in neural progenitor cells (NPCs) during brain development. Lack of Cul4b in NPCs in cultures led to increased generation of astrocytes, marked by GFAP and S100β. The GFAP+ cells were also found to be more abundant in the brains of nervous system-specific Cul4b knockout mice in vivo. Moreover, we demonstrated that the increased generation of GFAP+ cells from Cul4b-null NPCs was mediated by an upregulation of prostaglandin D2 synthase PTGDS. We showed that the increased GFAP expression can be attenuated by pharmacological inhibition of the PTGDS enzymatic activity or by shRNA-mediated knockdown of Ptgds. Importantly, exogenously added PTGDS could promote the generation of GFAP+ cells from wild-type NPCs. We further observed that Ptgds is targeted and repressed by the CUL4B/PRC2 complex. Together, our results demonstrate CUL4B as a negative regulator of GFAP expression during neural development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhao
- The Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology, Ministry of Education and Institute of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
| | - Baichun Jiang
- The Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology, Ministry of Education and Institute of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
| | - Huili Hu
- The Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology, Ministry of Education and Institute of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
| | - Shuqian Zhang
- The Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology, Ministry of Education and Institute of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
| | - Shuaishuai Lv
- The Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology, Ministry of Education and Institute of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
| | - Jupeng Yuan
- The Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology, Ministry of Education and Institute of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
| | - Yanyan Qian
- The Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology, Ministry of Education and Institute of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
| | - Yongxin Zou
- The Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology, Ministry of Education and Institute of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
| | - Xi Li
- The Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology, Ministry of Education and Institute of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
| | - Hong Jiang
- Institute of Medical Psychology, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China and
| | - Fang Liu
- Department of Neuroscience, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5T 1R8
| | - Changshun Shao
- The Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology, Ministry of Education and Institute of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China,
| | - Yaoqin Gong
- The Key Laboratory of Experimental Teratology, Ministry of Education and Institute of Molecular Medicine and Genetics, Shandong University School of Medicine, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China,
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Srivastava AK, Schwartz CE. Intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorders: causal genes and molecular mechanisms. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2014; 46 Pt 2:161-74. [PMID: 24709068 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2013] [Revised: 01/30/2014] [Accepted: 02/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Intellectual disability (ID) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are the most common developmental disorders present in humans. Combined, they affect between 3 and 5% of the population. Additionally, they can be found together in the same individual thereby complicating treatment. The causative factors (genes, epigenetic and environmental) are quite varied and likely interact so as to further complicate the assessment of an individual patient. Nonetheless, much valuable information has been gained by identifying candidate genes for ID or ASD. Understanding the etiology of either ID or ASD is of utmost importance for families. It allows a determination of the risk of recurrence, the possibility of other comorbidity medical problems, the molecular and cellular nature of the pathobiology and hopefully potential therapeutic approaches.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anand K Srivastava
- J.C. Self Research Institute, Greenwood Genetic Center, Greenwood, SC, USA
| | - Charles E Schwartz
- J.C. Self Research Institute, Greenwood Genetic Center, Greenwood, SC, USA.
| |
Collapse
|