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Berg BB, Linhares AFS, Martins DM, Rachid MA, Cau SBDA, Souza GGD, Carvalho JCSD, Sorgi CA, Romero TRL, Pinho V, Teixeira MM, Castor MGME. Anandamide reduces the migration of lymphocytes to the intestine by CB2 activation and reduces TNF-α in the target organs, protecting mice from graft-versus-host disease. Eur J Pharmacol 2023; 956:175932. [PMID: 37536622 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2023.175932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) is a serious inflammatory illness that often occurs as a secondary complication of bone marrow transplantation. Current therapies have limited effectiveness and fail to achieve a balance between inflammation and the graft-versus-tumor effect. In this study, we investigate the effects of the endocannabinoid anandamide on the complex pathology of GVHD. We assess the effects of an irreversible inhibitor of fatty acid amine hydrolase or exogenous anandamide and find that they increase survival and reduce clinical signs in GVHD mice. In the intestine of GVHD mice, treatment with exogenous anandamide also leads to a reduction in the number of CD3+, CD3+CD4+, and CD3+CD8+ cells, which reduces the activation of CD3+CD4+ and CD3+CD8+ cells, as assessed by enhanced CD28 expression, a T cell co-stimulatory molecule. Exogenous AEA was also able to reduce TNF-α and increase IL-10 in the intestine of GVHD mice. In the liver, exogenous AEA reduces injury, TNF-α levels, and the number of CD3+CD8+ cells. Interestingly, anandamide reduces Mac-1α, which lowers the adhesion of transplanted cells in mesenteric veins. These effects are mimicked by JWH133-a CB2 selective agonist-and abolished by treatment with a CB2 antagonist. Furthermore, the effects caused by anandamide treatment on survival were related to the CB2 receptor, as the CB2 antagonist abolished it. This study shows the critical role of the CB2 receptor in the modulation of the inflammatory response of GVHD by treatment with anandamide, the most prominent endocannabinoid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bárbara Betônico Berg
- Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Physiology and Pharmacology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Ana Flávia Santos Linhares
- Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Physiology and Pharmacology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Carlos Arterio Sorgi
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Philosophy Sciences and Letters of Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Vanessa Pinho
- Morphology Department, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Mauro Martins Teixeira
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
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Angelucci CB, Sabatucci A, Bernardo AL, Kurtz A, Oddi S, Dainese E. Measuring Endocannabinoid System Interaction with Biomembranes. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2576:425-436. [PMID: 36152207 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2728-0_35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the correct interaction among the different components of the endocannabinoid (eCB) system is fundamental for a proper assessment of the function of eCBs as signaling molecules. The knowledge of how the membrane environment modulates the intracellular trafficking of the eCB system and its interacting proteins holds a huge potential in unraveling new mechanisms of its modulation. This chapter deals with the application of fluorescence resonance energy transfer technique to measure the binding affinity of eCB proteins to model membranes (i.e., large unilamellar vesicles, LUVs). In particular, we describe in detail the paradigmatic example of the interaction of rat recombinant fatty acid amide hydrolase with LUVs constituted of 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Annalaura Sabatucci
- Faculty of Bioscience and Technology for Food Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy
| | - Ana Lia Bernardo
- Faculty of Bioscience and Technology for Food Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy
| | - Alexandrine Kurtz
- Faculty of Bioscience and Technology for Food Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy
| | - Sergio Oddi
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy
- European Center for Brain Research/Santa Lucia Foundation IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Enrico Dainese
- Faculty of Bioscience and Technology for Food Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy.
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Angelucci CB, Giacominelli-Stuffler R, Maccarrone M. Fluorimetric Assay of FAAH Activity. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2576:249-260. [PMID: 36152193 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2728-0_21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) is the enzyme responsible for the degradation of anandamide (N-arachidonoylethanolamine, AEA) to arachidonic acid (AA) and ethanolamine. The method described here measures FAAH activity through the fluorometric arachidonoyl-7-amino-4-methyl-coumarin amide (AAMCA) substrate, which allows a simple and sensitive assay suitable for high-throughput screening tests. FAAH catalyzes the hydrolysis of AAMCA producing AA and the highly fluorescent compound 7-amino-4-methylcoumarin (AMC).
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Mauro Maccarrone
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences, University of L'Aquila, L'Aquila, Italy
- European Center for Brain Research/Santa Lucia Foundation IRCCS, Rome, Italy
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Chen Y. Recent progress in natural product-based inhibitor screening with enzymatic fluorescent probes. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2021; 13:1778-1787. [PMID: 33885636 DOI: 10.1039/d1ay00245g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Drug discovery is a complex process in which many challenges need to be overcome, from the discovery of a drug candidate to ensuring the efficacy and safety of the candidate in humans. Modern analytical methods allow tens of thousands of drug candidates to be screened for their inhibition of specific enzymes or receptors. In recent years, fluorescent probes have been used for the detection and diagnosis of human pathogens as well as high-throughput screening. This review focuses on recent progress in organic small-molecule based enzyme-activated fluorescent probes for screening of inhibitors from natural products. The contents include the construction of fluorescent probes, working mechanism and the process of inhibitor screening. The progress suggests that fluorescent probes are a vital and rapidly growing technology for inhibitor screening of enzymes, in particular, inhibitor screening in situ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Chen
- Key Laboratory of Photochemical Conversion and Optoelectronic Materials, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China. and University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
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Criscuolo E, De Sciscio ML, Fezza F, Maccarrone M. In Silico and In Vitro Analysis of Major Cannabis-Derived Compounds as Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase Inhibitors. Molecules 2020; 26:molecules26010048. [PMID: 33374180 PMCID: PMC7795171 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26010048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Accumulated evidence suggests that enhancing the endocannabinoid (eCB) tone, in particular of anandamide (N-arachidonoylethanolamine, AEA), has therapeutic potential in many human diseases. Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) is a membrane-bound enzyme principally responsible for the degradation of AEA, and thus it represents a relevant target to increase signaling thereof. In recent years, different synthetic and natural compounds have been developed and tested on rat FAAH, but little is known of their effect on the human enzyme. Here, we sought to investigate six major cannabis-derived compounds to compare their action on rat and human FAAHs. To this aim, we combined an in silico analysis of their binding mode and affinity, with in vitro assays of their effect on enzyme activity. This integrated approach allowed to disclose differences in efficacy towards rat and human FAAHs, and to highlight the role of key residues involved in the inhibition of both enzymes. This study suggests that the therapeutic efficacy of compounds targeted towards FAAH should be always tested in vitro on both rat and human enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuele Criscuolo
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Via Montpellier 1, 00121 Rome, Italy;
- Department of Medicine, Campus Bio-Medico University of Rome, Via Alvaro del Portillo 21, 00128 Rome, Italy;
| | - Maria Laura De Sciscio
- Department of Medicine, Campus Bio-Medico University of Rome, Via Alvaro del Portillo 21, 00128 Rome, Italy;
- Department of Chemistry “G. Ciamician”, University of Bologna, Via Selmi 2, 40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Filomena Fezza
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Via Montpellier 1, 00121 Rome, Italy;
- Correspondence: (F.F.); (M.M.)
| | - Mauro Maccarrone
- Department of Biotechnological and Applied Clinical Sciences, University of L’Aquila, Via Vetoio snc, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
- European Center for Brain Research/IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Via del Fosso di Fiorano 54, 00143 Rome, Italy
- Correspondence: (F.F.); (M.M.)
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6
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Tian X, Liu T, Li L, Shao B, Yao D, Feng L, Cui J, James TD, Ma X. Visual High-Throughput Screening for Developing a Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase Natural Inhibitor Based on an Enzyme-Activated Fluorescent Probe. Anal Chem 2020; 92:9493-9500. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b05826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiangge Tian
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of New Drug Research and Clinical Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, 209 Tongshan Road, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221004, China
- College of Integrative Medicine, The National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center for Drug Development of Neurodegenerative Disease, College of Pharmacy, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning 116044, China
| | - Tao Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, Liaoning 116024, China
| | - Lu Li
- College of Integrative Medicine, The National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center for Drug Development of Neurodegenerative Disease, College of Pharmacy, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning 116044, China
| | - Bo Shao
- Zhendong Pharmaceutical Research Institute Co. Ltd., Changzhi, Shanxi 047100, China
| | - Dahong Yao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518060, China
| | - Lei Feng
- College of Integrative Medicine, The National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center for Drug Development of Neurodegenerative Disease, College of Pharmacy, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning 116044, China
| | - Jingnan Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, Liaoning 116024, China
| | - Tony D. James
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
| | - Xiaochi Ma
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of New Drug Research and Clinical Pharmacy, Xuzhou Medical University, 209 Tongshan Road, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221004, China
- College of Integrative Medicine, The National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center for Drug Development of Neurodegenerative Disease, College of Pharmacy, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning 116044, China
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Fazio D, Criscuolo E, Piccoli A, Barboni B, Fezza F, Maccarrone M. Advances in the discovery of fatty acid amide hydrolase inhibitors: what does the future hold? Expert Opin Drug Discov 2020; 15:765-778. [PMID: 32292082 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2020.1751118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) is a membrane-bound enzyme, that inactivates endogenous signaling lipids of the fatty acid amide family, including the endocannabinoid anandamide (N-arachidonoylethanolamine, AEA). The latter compound has been shown to regulate a number of important pathophysiological conditions in humans, like feeding, obesity, immune response, reproductive events, motor coordination, and neurological disorders. Hence, direct manipulation of the endocannabinoid tone is thought to have therapeutic potential. A new opportunity to develop effective drugs may arise from multi-target directed ligand (MTDL) strategies, which brings the concept that a single compound can recognize different targets involved in the cascade of pathophysiological events. AREAS COVERED This review reports the latest advances in the development of new single targeted and dual-targeted FAAH inhibitors over the past 5 years. EXPERT OPINION In recent years, several FAAH inhibitors have been synthesized and investigated, yet to date none of them has reached the market as a systemic drug. Due to the diligence of inherent redundancy and robustness in many biological networks and pathways, multitarget inhibitors present a new prospect in the pharmaceutical industry for treatment of complex diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Domenico Fazio
- Faculty of Biosciences and Technology for Food Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo , Teramo, Italy.,European Center for Brain Research/IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation , Rome, Italy
| | - Emanuele Criscuolo
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Tor Vergata University of Rome , Rome, Italy.,Department of Medicine, Campus Bio-Medico University of Rome , Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandra Piccoli
- Department of Medicine, Campus Bio-Medico University of Rome , Rome, Italy
| | - Barbara Barboni
- Faculty of Biosciences and Technology for Food Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo , Teramo, Italy
| | - Filomena Fezza
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Tor Vergata University of Rome , Rome, Italy
| | - Mauro Maccarrone
- European Center for Brain Research/IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation , Rome, Italy.,Department of Medicine, Campus Bio-Medico University of Rome , Rome, Italy
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Dainese E, Oddi S, Simonetti M, Sabatucci A, Angelucci CB, Ballone A, Dufrusine B, Fezza F, De Fabritiis G, Maccarrone M. The endocannabinoid hydrolase FAAH is an allosteric enzyme. Sci Rep 2020; 10:2292. [PMID: 32041998 PMCID: PMC7010751 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-59120-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) is a membrane-bound homodimeric enzyme that in vivo controls content and biological activity of N-arachidonoylethanolamine (AEA) and other relevant bioactive lipids termed endocannabinoids. Parallel orientation of FAAH monomers likely allows both subunits to simultaneously recruit and cleave substrates. Here, we show full inhibition of human and rat FAAH by means of enzyme inhibitors used at a homodimer:inhibitor stoichiometric ratio of 1:1, implying that occupation of only one of the two active sites of FAAH is enough to fully block catalysis. Single W445Y substitution in rat FAAH displayed the same activity as the wild-type, but failed to show full inhibition at the homodimer:inhibitor 1:1 ratio. Instead, F432A mutant exhibited reduced specific activity but was fully inhibited at the homodimer:inhibitor 1:1 ratio. Kinetic analysis of AEA hydrolysis by rat FAAH and its F432A mutant demonstrated a Hill coefficient of ~1.6, that instead was ~1.0 in the W445Y mutant. Of note, also human FAAH catalysed an allosteric hydrolysis of AEA, showing a Hill coefficient of ~1.9. Taken together, this study demonstrates an unprecedented allosterism of FAAH, and represents a case of communication between two enzyme subunits seemingly controlled by a single amino acid (W445) at the dimer interface. In the light of extensive attempts and subsequent failures over the last decade to develop effective drugs for human therapy, these findings pave the way to the rationale design of new molecules that, by acting as positive or negative heterotropic effectors of FAAH, may control more efficiently its activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Dainese
- Faculty of Biosciences, and Technology for Food Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy.
| | - Sergio Oddi
- European Center for Brain Research (CERC)/Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy
| | - Monica Simonetti
- Faculty of Biosciences, and Technology for Food Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy
| | - Annalaura Sabatucci
- Faculty of Biosciences, and Technology for Food Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy
| | | | - Alice Ballone
- Barcelona Biomedical Research Park (PRBB), University of Pompeu Fabra and Icrea, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Beatrice Dufrusine
- Faculty of Biosciences, and Technology for Food Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy
| | - Filomena Fezza
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, Tor Vergata University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Gianni De Fabritiis
- Barcelona Biomedical Research Park (PRBB), University of Pompeu Fabra and Icrea, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mauro Maccarrone
- European Center for Brain Research (CERC)/Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy.
- Department of Medicine - Campus Bio-Medico University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
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Ney LJ, Matthews A, Bruno R, Felmingham KL. Cannabinoid interventions for PTSD: Where to next? Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2019; 93:124-140. [PMID: 30946942 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2019.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2019] [Revised: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Cannabinoids are a promising method for pharmacological treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Despite considerable research devoted to the effect of cannabinoid modulation on PTSD symptomology, there is not a currently agreed way by which the cannabinoid system should be targeted in humans. In this review, we present an overview of recent research identifying neurological pathways by which different cannabinoid-based treatments may exert their effects on PTSD symptomology. We evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each of these different approaches, including recent challenges presented to favourable options such as fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitors. This article makes the strengths and challenges of different potential cannabinoid treatments accessible to psychological researchers interested in cannabinoid therapeutics and aims to aid selection of appropriate tools for future clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke J Ney
- School of Psychology, University of Tasmania, Australia.
| | | | | | - Kim L Felmingham
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne, Australia
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Sabatucci A, Simonetti M, Tortolani D, Angelucci CB, Dainese E, Maccarrone M. Role of Steroids on the Membrane Binding Ability of Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2019; 4:42-50. [PMID: 30944869 PMCID: PMC6446164 DOI: 10.1089/can.2018.0051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) is a membrane-bound homodimeric enzyme that gets in contact with a lipophilic substrate in the lipid bilayer, and then cleaves it into water soluble products. FAAH plays a critical role in modulating in vivo content and biological activity of endocannabinoids (eCBs), and its function is affected by membrane lipids. Increasing evidence suggests that also steroids can modulate endocannabinoid signaling, both in the central nervous system and at the periphery. Methods: In this study, we interrogated the effect of six steroids with relevant biological activity (testosterone, hydrocortisone, estradiol, pregnenolone, progesterone, and cortisone) on the membrane binding ability of rat FAAH. The experimental data analysis obtained by Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer Spectroscopy was paralleled by computational docking analysis. Results: Our data revealed distinct effects of the different steroids on the interaction of rat FAAH with model membranes. Among them, pregnenolone was found to be the most effective in raising rat FAAH affinity for model membranes. A possible binding pocket for steroid molecules was identified by docking analysis in the membrane-embedded region of the enzyme; such a pocket could account for the observed increase of the membrane affinity in the presence of the tested molecules. Conclusions: Overall, the results point to steroids as new regulators of FAAH interaction with membranes, which may impact the biological activity of eCBs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annalaura Sabatucci
- Faculty of Bioscience, and Technology for Food Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy
| | - Monica Simonetti
- Faculty of Bioscience, and Technology for Food Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy
| | - Daniel Tortolani
- Faculty of Bioscience, and Technology for Food Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy
| | | | - Enrico Dainese
- Faculty of Bioscience, and Technology for Food Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy.,European Center for Brain Research (CERC)/Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
| | - Mauro Maccarrone
- European Center for Brain Research (CERC)/Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy.,Department of Medicine, Campus Bio-Medico University of Rome, Rome, Italy
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Abstract
Understanding the correct interaction among the different components of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) is fundamental for a proper assessment of the function of endocannabinoids (eCBs) as signaling molecules. The knowledge of how membrane environment is able to modulate intracellular trafficking of eCBs and their interacting proteins holds a huge potential in unraveling new mechanisms of ECS modulation.Here, fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) technique is applied to measure the binding affinity of ECS proteins to model membranes (i.e., large unilamellar vesicles, LUVs). In particular, we describe in details the paradigmatic example of the interaction of recombinant rat FAAH-ΔTM with LUVs constituted by 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Annalaura Sabatucci
- Faculty of Bioscience and Technology for Food Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy
| | - Enrico Dainese
- Faculty of Bioscience and Technology for Food Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy.
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12
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Maccarrone M. Metabolism of the Endocannabinoid Anandamide: Open Questions after 25 Years. Front Mol Neurosci 2017; 10:166. [PMID: 28611591 PMCID: PMC5447297 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2017.00166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2017] [Accepted: 05/12/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabis extracts have been used for centuries, but its main active principle ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) was identified about 50 years ago. Yet, it is only 25 years ago that the first endogenous ligand of the same receptors engaged by the cannabis agents was discovered. This “endocannabinoid (eCB)” was identified as N-arachidonoylethanolamine (or anandamide (AEA)), and was shown to have several receptors, metabolic enzymes and transporters that altogether drive its biological activity. Here I report on the latest advances about AEA metabolism, with the aim of focusing open questions still awaiting an answer for a deeper understanding of AEA activity, and for translating AEA-based drugs into novel therapeutics for human diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauro Maccarrone
- Department of Medicine, Campus Bio-Medico University of RomeRome, Italy.,European Center for Brain Research, IRCCS Santa Lucia FoundationRome, Italy
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13
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Abstract
Lipid composition is expected to play an important role in modulating membrane enzyme activity, in particular if the substrates are themselves lipid molecules. A paradigmatic case is FAAH (fatty acid amide hydrolase), an enzyme critical in terminating endocannabinoid signalling and an important therapeutic target. In the present study, using a combined experimental and computational approach, we show that membrane lipids modulate the structure, subcellular localization and activity of FAAH. We report that the FAAH dimer is stabilized by the lipid bilayer and shows a higher membrane-binding affinity and enzymatic activity within membranes containing both cholesterol and the natural FAAH substrate AEA (anandamide). Additionally, co-localization of cholesterol, AEA and FAAH in mouse neuroblastoma cells suggests a mechanism through which cholesterol increases the substrate accessibility of FAAH.
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Pacher P, Kunos G. Modulating the endocannabinoid system in human health and disease--successes and failures. FEBS J 2013; 280:1918-43. [PMID: 23551849 PMCID: PMC3684164 DOI: 10.1111/febs.12260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 270] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2013] [Revised: 03/11/2013] [Accepted: 03/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of the endocannabinoid system, comprising the G-protein coupled cannabinoid 1 and 2 receptors (CB1/2), their endogenous lipid ligands or endocannabinoids, and synthetic and metabolizing enzymes, has triggered an avalanche of experimental studies implicating the endocannabinoid system in a growing number of physiological/pathological functions. These studies have also suggested that modulating the activity of the endocannabinoid system holds therapeutic promise for a broad range of diseases, including neurodegenerative, cardiovascular and inflammatory disorders; obesity/metabolic syndrome; cachexia; chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting; and tissue injury and pain, amongst others. However, clinical trials with globally acting CB1 antagonists in obesity/metabolic syndrome, and other studies with peripherally-restricted CB1/2 agonists and inhibitors of the endocannabinoid metabolizing enzyme in pain, have introduced unexpected complexities, suggesting that a better understanding of the pathophysiological role of the endocannabinoid system is required to devise clinically successful treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pál Pacher
- Laboratory of Physiologic Studies, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-9413, USA.
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15
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Bisogno T, Maccarrone M. Latest advances in the discovery of fatty acid amide hydrolase inhibitors. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2013; 8:509-22. [PMID: 23488865 DOI: 10.1517/17460441.2013.780021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) is the major catabolic enzyme of the endocannabinoid N-arachidonoylethanolamine (anandamide) that, with different degrees of efficiency, also hydrolyzes other endogenous fatty acid ethanolamides. FAAH is increasingly being considered a relevant therapeutic target, especially in models of inflammatory pain. The opportunity to selectively increase the endocannabinoid tone only in those tissues where such an enhancement can be beneficial might result in a therapeutic benefit with more limited side effects, compared to the use of direct agonists of anandamide-binding receptors. Thus the research for selective FAAH inhibitors has become a hot topic in current drug discovery. AREAS COVERED This review highlights the advances in the development of different compounds belonging to different chemical families that have been proposed as FAAH inhibitors. Several classes of inhibitors have been reported so far, and they may be classified into two major classes: reversible and irreversible compounds. These inhibitors are reviewed herein with an emphasis on their potency and selectivity. EXPERT OPINION In recent years, tremendous efforts have been made to develop the FAAH inhibitors, and consequently many novel chemical templates have been discovered. It is still a major challenge to identify the first inhibitor of FAAH suitable for clinical exploitation that satisfies the requirements of potency, selectivity versus proteins related to anandamide activity as well as other potential off-targets, reversibility versus irreversibility, and efficacy toward rat versus human FAAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiziana Bisogno
- Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry/Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, 80078 Pozzuoli, Italy
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