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Zhang HQ, Sun C, Xu N, Liu W. The current landscape of the antimicrobial peptide melittin and its therapeutic potential. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1326033. [PMID: 38318188 PMCID: PMC10838977 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1326033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Melittin, a main component of bee venom, is a cationic amphiphilic peptide with a linear α-helix structure. It has been reported that melittin can exert pharmacological effects, such as antitumor, antiviral and anti-inflammatory effects in vitro and in vivo. In particular, melittin may be beneficial for the treatment of diseases for which no specific clinical therapeutic agents exist. Melittin can effectively enhance the therapeutic properties of some first-line drugs. Elucidating the mechanism underlying melittin-mediated biological function can provide valuable insights for the application of melittin in disease intervention. However, in melittin, the positively charged amino acids enables it to directly punching holes in cell membranes. The hemolysis in red cells and the cytotoxicity triggered by melittin limit its applications. Melittin-based nanomodification, immuno-conjugation, structural regulation and gene technology strategies have been demonstrated to enhance the specificity, reduce the cytotoxicity and limit the off-target cytolysis of melittin, which suggests the potential of melittin to be used clinically. This article summarizes research progress on antiviral, antitumor and anti-inflammatory properties of melittin, and discusses the strategies of melittin-modification for its future potential clinical applications in preventing drug resistance, enhancing the selectivity to target cells and alleviating cytotoxic effects to normal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Qian Zhang
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Chengbiao Sun
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Na Xu
- Academic Affairs Office, Jilin Medical University, Jilin, Jilin, China
| | - Wensen Liu
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Changchun, Jilin, China
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2
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Campanile M, Oliva R, D'Errico G, Del Vecchio P, Petraccone L. The anticancer peptide LL-III alters the physico-chemical properties of a model tumor membrane promoting lipid bilayer permeabilization. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2023; 25:3639-3650. [PMID: 36541682 DOI: 10.1039/d2cp03528f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
LL-III is an anticancer peptide and has the ability to translocate across tumor cell membranes, which indicates that its action mechanism could be non-membranolytic. However, the exact mechanism through which the peptide gains access into the cell cytoplasm is still unknown. Here, we use a plethora of physico-chemical techniques to characterize the interaction of LL-III with liposomes mimicking the lipid matrix of the tumor cell membrane and its effect on the microstructure and thermotropic properties of the membrane. Furthermore, the effect of the presence of Ca2+ cations at physiological concentration was also investigated. For comparison, the interaction of LL-III with liposomes mimicking the normal cell membrane was also studied. Our results show that the peptide selectively interacts with the model tumor cell membrane. This interaction does not disrupt the lipid bilayer but deeply alters its properties by promoting lipid lateral reorganization and increasing membrane permeability. Overall, our data provide a molecular level description of the interaction of the peptide with the model tumor membrane and are fully consistent with the non-membranolytic action mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Campanile
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia 4, 80126 Naples, Italy.
| | - Rosario Oliva
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia 4, 80126 Naples, Italy.
| | - Gerardino D'Errico
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia 4, 80126 Naples, Italy.
| | - Pompea Del Vecchio
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia 4, 80126 Naples, Italy.
| | - Luigi Petraccone
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia 4, 80126 Naples, Italy.
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3
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Luchini A, Vitiello G. Mimicking the Mammalian Plasma Membrane: An Overview of Lipid Membrane Models for Biophysical Studies. Biomimetics (Basel) 2020; 6:biomimetics6010003. [PMID: 33396534 PMCID: PMC7838988 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics6010003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell membranes are very complex biological systems including a large variety of lipids and proteins. Therefore, they are difficult to extract and directly investigate with biophysical methods. For many decades, the characterization of simpler biomimetic lipid membranes, which contain only a few lipid species, provided important physico-chemical information on the most abundant lipid species in cell membranes. These studies described physical and chemical properties that are most likely similar to those of real cell membranes. Indeed, biomimetic lipid membranes can be easily prepared in the lab and are compatible with multiple biophysical techniques. Lipid phase transitions, the bilayer structure, the impact of cholesterol on the structure and dynamics of lipid bilayers, and the selective recognition of target lipids by proteins, peptides, and drugs are all examples of the detailed information about cell membranes obtained by the investigation of biomimetic lipid membranes. This review focuses specifically on the advances that were achieved during the last decade in the field of biomimetic lipid membranes mimicking the mammalian plasma membrane. In particular, we provide a description of the most common types of lipid membrane models used for biophysical characterization, i.e., lipid membranes in solution and on surfaces, as well as recent examples of their applications for the investigation of protein-lipid and drug-lipid interactions. Altogether, promising directions for future developments of biomimetic lipid membranes are the further implementation of natural lipid mixtures for the development of more biologically relevant lipid membranes, as well as the development of sample preparation protocols that enable the incorporation of membrane proteins in the biomimetic lipid membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Luchini
- Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 5, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark;
| | - Giuseppe Vitiello
- Department of Chemical, Materials and Production Engineering, University of Naples Federico II, Piazzale Tecchio 80, 80125 Naples, Italy
- CSGI-Center for Colloid and Surface Science, via della Lastruccia 3, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino (Florence), Italy
- Correspondence:
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4
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A boost to the antiviral activity: Cholesterol tagged peptides derived from glycoprotein B of Herpes Simplex virus type I. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 162:882-893. [PMID: 32569683 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.06.134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Conformational changes of viral glycoproteins govern the fusion of viral and cellular membranes in the entry of enveloped viruses. Peptides mimicking domains of viral glycoproteins are apt to interfere with the fusion event, likely hampering the conformational rearrangements from the pre- to the post-fusion structures. We previously developed a peptide sequence with a high potential to inhibit the entry of herpes simplex type 1, which was able to trap glycoprotein B at an intermediate stage, arresting fusion. We propose that similarly to other viruses, membrane targeting through cholesterol conjugation may potently block fusion. The peptide conjugated to polyethylenglycol and cholesterol interacts with viral and cell membranes thanks to the presence of cholesterol and blocks the conformational rearrangements of the glycoprotein B. Here, we also probed the effect of the linker (polyethylenglycol) length on the activity. By targeting the peptide gBh1m to the membranes where fusion occurs and by engineering sequences with increased binding affinity for gB we have enhanced the antiviral potency of our prototype inhibitors. Our results provide proof of concept for the application of cholesterol tagging to develop inhibitors of HSV-1.
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5
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Riccardi C, Fàbrega C, Grijalvo S, Vitiello G, D'Errico G, Eritja R, Montesarchio D. AS1411-decorated niosomes as effective nanocarriers for Ru(iii)-based drugs in anticancer strategies. J Mater Chem B 2018; 6:5368-5384. [PMID: 32254501 DOI: 10.1039/c8tb01563e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Niosomes are self-assembled vesicles made up of single chain non-ionic surfactants combined with appropriate amounts of cholesterol or other lipids, exploited as carriers for hydrophilic or lipophilic drugs. Compared to liposomes, niosomes are typically more stable, less expensive and, being generally obtained from synthetic surfactants, more easily derivatizable, providing vesicular structures with a higher versatility and chemical diversity. Herein, we investigated the physico-chemical and biological properties of niosomes loaded with two active ingredients, i.e. the nucleolipidic Ru(iii)-complex HoThyRu, selected as an anticancer agent, and the nucleolin-targeting AS1411 aptamer, allowing selective recognition of cancer cells. The morphology, average size, zeta potential, electrophoretic mobility, and stability over time of the functionalized niosomes were analyzed using different biophysical techniques. These formulations, tested on both cancer and normal cells, showed promising antiproliferative activity on HeLa cells, with a higher efficacy associated with the nanosystems containing both AS1411 and HoThyRu with respect to the controls. In all the tested cell lines, AS1411 proved to markedly enhance the bioactivity of the Ru(iii)-containing niosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Riccardi
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia 21, I-80126, Napoli, Italy.
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6
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Vitiello G, Musumeci D, Koutsioubas A, Paduano L, Montesarchio D, D'Errico G. Ionophores at work: Exploring the interaction of guanosine-based amphiphiles with phospholipid membranes. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2017; 1859:2392-2401. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2017.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2017] [Revised: 08/31/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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7
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Dimerization in tailoring uptake efficacy of the HSV-1 derived membranotropic peptide gH625. Sci Rep 2017; 7:9434. [PMID: 28842580 PMCID: PMC5572722 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-09001-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2017] [Accepted: 07/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
gH625 constitutes a promising delivery vehicle for the transport of therapeutic biomacromolecules across membrane barriers. We report an application of multivalency to create a complex nanosystem for delivery and to elucidate the mechanism of peptide-lipid bilayer interactions. Multivalency may offer a route to enhance gH625 cellular uptake as demonstrated by results obtained on dimers of gH625 by fluorescence spectroscopy, circular dichroism, and surface plasmon resonance. Moreover, using both phase contrast and light sheet fluorescence microscopy we were able to characterize and visualize for the first time the fusion of giant unilamellar vesicles caused by a membranotropic peptide.
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8
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Lombardi L, Stellato MI, Oliva R, Falanga A, Galdiero M, Petraccone L, D'Errico G, De Santis A, Galdiero S, Del Vecchio P. Antimicrobial peptides at work: interaction of myxinidin and its mutant WMR with lipid bilayers mimicking the P. aeruginosa and E. coli membranes. Sci Rep 2017; 7:44425. [PMID: 28294185 PMCID: PMC5353584 DOI: 10.1038/srep44425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2016] [Accepted: 02/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides are promising candidates as future therapeutics in order to face the problem of antibiotic resistance caused by pathogenic bacteria. Myxinidin is a peptide derived from the hagfish mucus displaying activity against a broad range of bacteria. We have focused our studies on the physico-chemical characterization of the interaction of myxinidin and its mutant WMR, which contains a tryptophan residue at the N-terminus and four additional positive charges, with two model biological membranes (DOPE/DOPG 80/20 and DOPE/DOPG/CL 65/23/12), mimicking respectively Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa membrane bilayers. All our results have coherently shown that, although both myxinidin and WMR interact with the two membranes, their effect on membrane microstructure and stability are different. We further have shown that the presence of cardiolipin plays a key role in the WMR-membrane interaction. Particularly, WMR drastically perturbs the DOPE/DOPG/CL membrane stability inducing a segregation of anionic lipids. On the contrary, myxinidin is not able to significantly perturb the DOPE/DOPG/CL bilayer whereas interacts better with the DOPE/DOPG bilayer causing a significant perturbing effect of the lipid acyl chains. These findings are fully consistent with the reported greater antimicrobial activity of WMR against P. aeruginosa compared with myxinidin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Lombardi
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Università della Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", via De Crecchio, 80134 Naples, Italy
| | - Marco Ignazio Stellato
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples "Federico II", via Cintia, 80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Rosario Oliva
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples "Federico II", via Cintia, 80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Annarita Falanga
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Naples, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Galdiero
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Università della Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", via De Crecchio, 80134 Naples, Italy
| | - Luigi Petraccone
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples "Federico II", via Cintia, 80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Geradino D'Errico
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples "Federico II", via Cintia, 80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Augusta De Santis
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples "Federico II", via Cintia, 80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Stefania Galdiero
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Naples, Italy
| | - Pompea Del Vecchio
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples "Federico II", via Cintia, 80126 Naples, Italy
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9
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Franci G, Falanga A, Zannella C, Folliero V, Martora F, Galdiero M, Galdiero S, Morelli G, Galdiero M. Infectivity inhibition by overlapping synthetic peptides derived from the gH/gL heterodimer of herpes simplex virus type 1. J Pept Sci 2017; 23:311-319. [PMID: 28194842 PMCID: PMC7168125 DOI: 10.1002/psc.2979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2016] [Revised: 01/13/2017] [Accepted: 01/16/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is a human pathogen that infects epithelial cells. The cutaneous lesions, caused by the virus, spread to the nervous system creating several complications. Fusion of host membranes with the viral envelope is mandatory and mediated by a group of glycoproteins conserved in all Herpesviridae subfamilies, such as the glycoproteins B (gB), H (gH), L (gL) and D (gD). We investigated the inhibitory activity mediated by synthetic overlapping peptides spanning the entire ectodomains of gH and gL glycoproteins. We have performed a brute analysis of the complete gH/gL heterodimer in order to explore the inhibitory activity of peptides modelled on these glycoproteins against HSV‐1 infection. Twenty‐four of the gH peptides at a concentration of 150 μM reached the 50% of inhibition cut‐off. Interestingly, they are mainly located in the gH carboxy‐terminal domain. None of the gL peptides had a clear inhibiting effect. No peptide toxicity was observed by lactate dehydrogenase assay at the concentrations used in our experimental conditions. HSV‐1 therapy is based on acyclovir treatment, but some resistant strains are emerging. In this scenario, innovative approaches for HSV‐1 treatment are necessary. Our data support the direct involvement of the described domains in the process of virus penetration; therefore, these results are of relevance to the potential development of novel therapeutic compounds to prevent HSV‐1 infections. Copyright © 2017 European Peptide Society and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianluigi Franci
- Department of Experimental MedicineUniversity of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”Via De Crecchio 780138NaplesItaly
- Centro Interuniversitario di Ricerca sui Peptidi BioattiviUniversity of Naples ‘Federico II’Via Mezzocannone 1680134NaplesItaly
| | - Annarita Falanga
- Centro Interuniversitario di Ricerca sui Peptidi BioattiviUniversity of Naples ‘Federico II’Via Mezzocannone 1680134NaplesItaly
- Department of PharmacyUniversity of Naples ‘Federico II’Via Mezzocannone 1680134NaplesItaly
| | - Carla Zannella
- Department of Experimental MedicineUniversity of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”Via De Crecchio 780138NaplesItaly
| | - Veronica Folliero
- Department of Experimental MedicineUniversity of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”Via De Crecchio 780138NaplesItaly
| | - Francesca Martora
- Department of Experimental MedicineUniversity of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”Via De Crecchio 780138NaplesItaly
| | - Marilena Galdiero
- Department of Experimental MedicineUniversity of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”Via De Crecchio 780138NaplesItaly
| | - Stefania Galdiero
- Centro Interuniversitario di Ricerca sui Peptidi BioattiviUniversity of Naples ‘Federico II’Via Mezzocannone 1680134NaplesItaly
| | - Giancarlo Morelli
- Centro Interuniversitario di Ricerca sui Peptidi BioattiviUniversity of Naples ‘Federico II’Via Mezzocannone 1680134NaplesItaly
- Department of PharmacyUniversity of Naples ‘Federico II’Via Mezzocannone 1680134NaplesItaly
| | - Massimiliano Galdiero
- Department of Experimental MedicineUniversity of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”Via De Crecchio 780138NaplesItaly
- Centro Interuniversitario di Ricerca sui Peptidi BioattiviUniversity of Naples ‘Federico II’Via Mezzocannone 1680134NaplesItaly
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10
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Falanga A, Lombardi L, Tarallo R, Franci G, Perillo E, Palomba L, Galdiero M, Pontoni D, Fragneto G, Weck M, Galdiero S. The intriguing journey of gH625-dendrimers. RSC Adv 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra28405a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The knowledge of the mechanism used by vectors to gain access to cell interiors is key to the development of effective drug delivery tools for different pathologies.
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11
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Oliva R, Emendato A, Vitiello G, De Santis A, Grimaldi M, D'Ursi AM, Busi E, Del Vecchio P, Petraccone L, D'Errico G. On the microscopic and mesoscopic perturbations of lipid bilayers upon interaction with the MPER domain of the HIV glycoprotein gp41. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2016; 1858:1904-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2016.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2016] [Revised: 05/04/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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12
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Falanga A, Galdiero M, Galdiero S. Membranotropic Cell Penetrating Peptides: The Outstanding Journey. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:25323-37. [PMID: 26512649 PMCID: PMC4632803 DOI: 10.3390/ijms161025323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Revised: 09/30/2015] [Accepted: 10/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The membrane bilayer delimits the interior of individual cells and provides them with the ability to survive and function properly. However, the crossing of cellular membranes constitutes the principal impediment to gaining entry into cells, and the potential therapeutic application of many drugs is predominantly dependent on the development of delivery tools that should take the drug to target cells selectively and efficiently with only minimal toxicity. Cell-penetrating peptides are short and basic peptides are widely used due to their ability to deliver a cargo across the membrane both in vitro and in vivo. It is widely accepted that their uptake mechanism involves mainly the endocytic pathway, the drug is catched inside endosomes and lysosomes, and only a small quantity is able to reach the intracellular target. In this wide-ranging scenario, a fascinating novel hypothesis is that membranotropic peptides that efficiently cross biological membranes, promote lipid-membrane reorganizing processes and cause a local and temporary destabilization and reorganization of the membrane bilayer, may also be able to enter cells circumventing the endosomal entrapment; in particular, by either favoring the escape from the endosome or by direct translocation. This review summarizes current data on membranotropic peptides for drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annarita Falanga
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Naples, Italy.
| | - Massimiliano Galdiero
- CiRPEB, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Naples, Italy.
- Department of Experimental Medicine, II University of Naples, Via De Crecchio 7, 80138 Naples, Italy.
| | - Stefania Galdiero
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Naples, Italy.
- CiRPEB, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Naples, Italy.
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13
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Vitiello G, Falanga A, Petruk AA, Merlino A, Fragneto G, Paduano L, Galdiero S, D'Errico G. Fusion of raft-like lipid bilayers operated by a membranotropic domain of the HSV-type I glycoprotein gH occurs through a cholesterol-dependent mechanism. SOFT MATTER 2015; 11:3003-3016. [PMID: 25734956 DOI: 10.1039/c4sm02769h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
A wealth of evidence indicates that lipid rafts are involved in the fusion of the viral lipid envelope with the target cell membrane. However, the interplay between these sterol- and sphingolipid-enriched ordered domains and viral fusion glycoproteins has not yet been clarified. In this work we investigate the molecular mechanism by which a membranotropic fragment of the glycoprotein gH of the Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) type I (gH625) drives fusion of lipid bilayers formed by palmitoyl oleoyl phosphatidylcholine (POPC)-sphingomyelin (SM)-cholesterol (CHOL) (1 : 1 : 1 wt/wt/wt), focusing on the role played by each component. The comparative analysis of the liposome fusion assays, Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), spectrofluorimetry, Neutron Reflectivity (NR) and Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) experiments, and Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations shows that CHOL is fundamental for liposome fusion to occur. In detail, CHOL stabilizes the gH625-bilayer association by specific interactions with the peptide Trp residue. The interaction with gH625 causes an increased order of the lipid acyl chains, whose local rotational motion is significantly hampered. SM plays only a minor role in the process, favoring the propagation of lipid perturbation to the bilayer inner core. The stiffening of the peptide-interacting bilayer leaflet results in an asymmetric perturbation of the membrane, which is locally destabilized thus favoring fusion events. Our results show that viral fusion glycoproteins are optimally suited to exert a high fusogenic activity on lipid rafts and support the relevance of cholesterol as a key player of membrane-related processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Vitiello
- Department of Chemical, Materials and Production Engineering, University of Naples "Federico II", Piazzale Tecchio 80, 80125 Naples, Italy
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14
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Falanga A, Tarallo R, Carberry T, Galdiero M, Weck M, Galdiero S. Elucidation of the interaction mechanism with liposomes of gH625-peptide functionalized dendrimers. PLoS One 2014; 9:e112128. [PMID: 25423477 PMCID: PMC4244103 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0112128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2014] [Accepted: 10/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We have demonstrated that amide-based dendrimers functionalized with the membrane-interacting peptide gH625 derived from the herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) envelope glycoprotein H enter cells mainly through a non-active translocation mechanism. Herein, we investigate the interaction between the peptide-functionalized dendrimer and liposomes composed of PC/Chol using fluorescence spectroscopy, isothermal titration calorimetry, and surface plasmon resonance to get insights into the mechanism of internalization. The affinity for the membrane bilayer is very high and the interaction between the peptide-dendrimer and liposomes took place without evidence of pore formation. These results suggest that the presented peptidodendrimeric scaffold may be a promising material for efficient drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annarita Falanga
- Department of Pharmacy & CIRPEB & DFM Scarl, University of Naples “Federico II”, Naples, Italy
| | - Rossella Tarallo
- Molecular Design Institute and Department of Chemistry, New York University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Thomas Carberry
- Molecular Design Institute and Department of Chemistry, New York University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | | | - Marcus Weck
- Molecular Design Institute and Department of Chemistry, New York University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Stefania Galdiero
- Department of Pharmacy & CIRPEB & DFM Scarl, University of Naples “Federico II”, Naples, Italy
- * E-mail:
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15
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Galdiero S, Falanga A, Morelli G, Galdiero M. gH625: a milestone in understanding the many roles of membranotropic peptides. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2014; 1848:16-25. [PMID: 25305339 PMCID: PMC7124228 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2014.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Revised: 09/26/2014] [Accepted: 10/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Here, we review the current knowledge about viral derived membranotropic peptides, and we discuss how they may be used for many therapeutic applications. While they have been initially discovered in viral fusion proteins and have been involved in the mechanism of viral entry, it is now clear that their features and their mode of interaction with membrane bilayers can be exploited to design viral inhibitors as well as to favor delivery of cargos across the cell membrane and across the blood–brain barrier. The peptide gH625 has been extensively used for all these purposes and provides a significant contribution to the field. We describe the roles of this sequence in order to close the gap between the many functions that are now emerging for membranotropic peptides. Membranotropic peptides and their therapeutic applications Membrane fusion, viral inhibition, drug delivery gH625, a peptide derived from Herpes simplex virus type I: a case study gH625 in vitro and in vivo delivery across the blood–brain barrier
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefania Galdiero
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Naples, Italy; DFM Scarl, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Naples, Italy.
| | - Annarita Falanga
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Naples, Italy; DFM Scarl, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Naples, Italy
| | - Giancarlo Morelli
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Naples, Italy; DFM Scarl, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Naples, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Galdiero
- Department of Experimental Medicine, II University of Naples, Via De Crecchio 7, 80138 Naples, Italy
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16
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Galdiero S, Falanga A, Vitiello M, Grieco P, Caraglia M, Morelli G, Galdiero M. Exploitation of viral properties for intracellular delivery. J Pept Sci 2014; 20:468-78. [PMID: 24889153 PMCID: PMC7168031 DOI: 10.1002/psc.2649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2014] [Revised: 04/16/2014] [Accepted: 04/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Nanotechnology is an expanding area of study with potentially pivotal applications in a discipline as medicine where new biomedical active molecules or strategies are continuously developing. One of the principal drawbacks for the application of new therapies is the difficulty to cross membranes that represent the main physiological barrier in our body and in all living cells. Membranes are selectively permeable and allow the selective internalization of substances; generally, they form a highly impermeable barrier to most polar and charged molecules, and represent an obstacle for drug delivery, limiting absorption to specific routes and mechanisms. Viruses provide attracting suggestions for the development of targeted drug carriers as they have evolved naturally to deliver their genomes to host cells with high fidelity. A detailed understanding of virus structure and their mechanisms of entry into mammalian cells will facilitate the development and analysis of virus‐based materials for medical applications. Copyright © 2014 European Peptide Society and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefania Galdiero
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Mezzocannone 16, and Via Domenico Montesano 49, 80100, Napoli, Italy; Centro Interuniversitario di Ricerca sui Peptidi Bioattivi, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134, Napoli, Italy; Istituto di Biostrutture e Bioimmagini - CNR, Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134, Napoli, Italy; DFM Scarl, Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134, Napoli, Italy
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17
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Battistini L, Burreddu P, Sartori A, Arosio D, Manzoni L, Paduano L, D’Errico G, Sala R, Reia L, Bonomini S, Rassu G, Zanardi F. Enhancement of the Uptake and Cytotoxic Activity of Doxorubicin in Cancer Cells by Novel cRGD-Semipeptide-Anchoring Liposomes. Mol Pharm 2014; 11:2280-93. [DOI: 10.1021/mp400718j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Battistini
- Dipartimento
di Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Parma, Parma 43124, Italy
| | - Paola Burreddu
- Istituto
di Chimica Biomolecolare, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Li Punti Sassari 07100, Italy
| | - Andrea Sartori
- Dipartimento
di Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Parma, Parma 43124, Italy
| | - Daniela Arosio
- Istituto
di Scienze e Tecnologie Molecolari, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Milano 20133, Italy
| | - Leonardo Manzoni
- Istituto
di Scienze e Tecnologie Molecolari, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Milano 20133, Italy
| | - Luigi Paduano
- Dipartimento
di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II”, Napoli 80126, Italy
- CSGI−Consorzio interuniversitario per lo sviluppo dei Sistemi a Grande Interfase, Sesto Fiorentino 50019, Italy
| | - Gerardino D’Errico
- Dipartimento
di Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II”, Napoli 80126, Italy
- CSGI−Consorzio interuniversitario per lo sviluppo dei Sistemi a Grande Interfase, Sesto Fiorentino 50019, Italy
| | - Roberto Sala
- Dipartimento
di Scienze Biomediche, Biotecnologiche e Traslazionali, Università degli Studi di Parma, Parma 43126, Italy
| | - Laura Reia
- Dipartimento
di Scienze Biomediche, Biotecnologiche e Traslazionali, Università degli Studi di Parma, Parma 43126, Italy
| | - Sabrina Bonomini
- Dipartimento
di Medicina Clinica e Sperimentale, Università degli Studi di Parma, Parma 43126, Italy
| | - Gloria Rassu
- Istituto
di Chimica Biomolecolare, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Li Punti Sassari 07100, Italy
| | - Franca Zanardi
- Dipartimento
di Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Parma, Parma 43124, Italy
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18
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Scrima M, Di Marino S, Grimaldi M, Campana F, Vitiello G, Piotto SP, D'Errico G, D'Ursi AM. Structural features of the C8 antiviral peptide in a membrane-mimicking environment. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2014; 1838:1010-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2013.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2013] [Revised: 12/12/2013] [Accepted: 12/16/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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19
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Vitiello G, Di Marino S, D'Ursi AM, D'Errico G. Omega-3 fatty acids regulate the interaction of the Alzheimer's aβ(25-35) peptide with lipid membranes. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2013; 29:14239-14245. [PMID: 24144219 DOI: 10.1021/la403416b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids are increasingly proposed as dietary supplements able to reduce the risk of development or progression of the Alzheimer's disease (AD). To date, the molecular mechanism through which these lipids act has not been yet univocally identified. In this work, we investigate whether omega-3 fatty acids could interfere with the fate of the Alzheimer-related amyloid peptide by tuning the microstructural and dynamical properties of the neuronal membrane. To this aim, the influence of the omega-3 lipid, 1,2-didocosahexaenoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine [22:6(cis)PC] on the biophysical properties of lipid bilayers, and on their interaction with the amyloid peptide fragment Aβ(25-35) has been investigated by Electron Spin Resonance (ESR), using spin-labeled phospholipids. The results show that the peptide selectively interacts with bilayers enriched in cholesterol (Chol) and sphingomyelin (SM). [22:6(cis)PC] enhances the Aβ(25-35)/membrane interaction, favoring a deeper internalization of the peptide among the lipid acyl chains and, consequently, hindering its pathogenic self-aggregation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Vitiello
- Department of Chemical Science, University of Naples ''Federico II'' , Complesso di Monte S. Angelo, Via Cinthia, I-80126 Naples, Italy
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20
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Cantisani M, Falanga A, Incoronato N, Russo L, De Simone A, Morelli G, Berisio R, Galdiero M, Galdiero S. Conformational modifications of gB from herpes simplex virus type 1 analyzed by synthetic peptides. J Med Chem 2013; 56:8366-76. [PMID: 24160917 DOI: 10.1021/jm400771k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Entry of enveloped viruses requires fusion of viral and cellular membranes, driven by conformational changes of viral glycoproteins. The crystallized trimeric glycoprotein gB of herpes simplex virus has been described as a postfusion conformation, and several studies prove that like other class III fusion proteins, gB undergoes a pH-dependent switch between the pre- and postfusion conformations. Using several biophysical techniques, we show that peptides corresponding to the long helix of the gB postfusion structure interfere with the membrane fusion event, likely hampering the conformational rearrangements from the pre- to the postfusion structures. Those peptides represent good candidates for further design of peptidomimetic antagonists capable of blocking the fusion process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Cantisani
- Department of Pharmacy, ‡CIRPEB, and §DFM Scarl, University of Naples "Federico II" , Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134, Napoli, Italy
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21
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Rusnati M, Chiodelli P, Bugatti A, Urbinati C. Bridging the past and the future of virology: surface plasmon resonance as a powerful tool to investigate virus/host interactions. Crit Rev Microbiol 2013; 41:238-60. [PMID: 24059853 DOI: 10.3109/1040841x.2013.826177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Despite decades of antiviral drug research and development, viruses still remain a top global healthcare problem. Compared to eukaryotic cells, viruses are composed by a limited numbers of proteins that, nevertheless, set up multiple interactions with cellular components, allowing the virus to take control of the infected cell. Each virus/host interaction can be considered as a therapeutical target for new antiviral drugs but, unfortunately, the systematic study of a so huge number of interactions is time-consuming and expensive, calling for models overcoming these drawbacks. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) is a label-free optical technique to study biomolecular interactions in real time by detecting reflected light from a prism-gold film interface. Launched 20 years ago, SPR has become a nearly irreplaceable technology for the study of biomolecular interactions. Accordingly, SPR is increasingly used in the field of virology, spanning from the study of biological interactions to the identification of putative antiviral drugs. From the literature available, SPR emerges as an ideal link between conventional biological experimentation and system biology studies functional to the identification of highly connected viral or host proteins that act as nodal points in virus life cycle and thus considerable as therapeutical targets for the development of innovative antiviral strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Rusnati
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia , Brescia , Italy
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22
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Peptide-lipid interactions: experiments and applications. Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:18758-89. [PMID: 24036440 PMCID: PMC3794806 DOI: 10.3390/ijms140918758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2013] [Revised: 08/27/2013] [Accepted: 08/28/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The interactions between peptides and lipids are of fundamental importance in the functioning of numerous membrane-mediated cellular processes including antimicrobial peptide action, hormone-receptor interactions, drug bioavailability across the blood-brain barrier and viral fusion processes. Moreover, a major goal of modern biotechnology is obtaining new potent pharmaceutical agents whose biological action is dependent on the binding of peptides to lipid-bilayers. Several issues need to be addressed such as secondary structure, orientation, oligomerization and localization inside the membrane. At the same time, the structural effects which the peptides cause on the lipid bilayer are important for the interactions and need to be elucidated. The structural characterization of membrane active peptides in membranes is a harsh experimental challenge. It is in fact accepted that no single experimental technique can give a complete structural picture of the interaction, but rather a combination of different techniques is necessary.
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23
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Smaldone G, Falanga A, Capasso D, Guarnieri D, Correale S, Galdiero M, Netti PA, Zollo M, Galdiero S, Di Gaetano S, Pedone E. gH625 is a viral derived peptide for effective delivery of intrinsically disordered proteins. Int J Nanomedicine 2013; 8:2555-65. [PMID: 23901273 PMCID: PMC3726435 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s44186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
A genetically modified recombinant gH625-c-prune was prepared through conjugation of c-prune with gH625, a peptide encompassing 625-644 residues of the glycoprotein H of herpes simplex virus 1, which has been proved to possess the ability to carry cargo molecules across cell membranes. C-prune is the C-terminal domain of h-prune, overexpressed in breast, colorectal, and gastric cancers, interacting with multiple partners, and representing an ideal target for inhibition of cancer development. Its C-terminal domain results in an intrinsically disordered domain (IDD), and the peculiar properties of gH625 render it an optimal candidate to act as a carrier for this net negatively charged molecule by comparison with the positively charged TAT. A characterization of the recombinant gH625-c-prune fusion protein was conducted by biochemical, cellular biology and confocal microscopy means in comparison with TAT-c-prune. The results showed that the gH625-c-prune exhibited the ability to cross biomembranes, opening a new scenario on the use of gH625 as a novel multifunctional carrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Smaldone
- Institute of Biostructures and Bioimaging, National Research Council, Naples, Italy
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24
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Mangiapia G, Vitiello G, Irace C, Santamaria R, Colonna A, Angelico R, Radulescu A, D’Errico G, Montesarchio D, Paduano L. Anticancer Cationic Ruthenium Nanovectors: From Rational Molecular Design to Cellular Uptake and Bioactivity. Biomacromolecules 2013; 14:2549-60. [DOI: 10.1021/bm400104b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gaetano Mangiapia
- Dipartimento
di
Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II”, Complesso
Universitario di M. S. Angelo, Via Cinthia, 80126 Naples, Italy
- CSGI − Consorzio
interuniversitario per lo sviluppo di Sistemi a Grande Interfase, University of Florence, Via della Lastruccia
3, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Vitiello
- Dipartimento
di
Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II”, Complesso
Universitario di M. S. Angelo, Via Cinthia, 80126 Naples, Italy
- CSGI − Consorzio
interuniversitario per lo sviluppo di Sistemi a Grande Interfase, University of Florence, Via della Lastruccia
3, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Carlo Irace
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II”, Via D. Montesano 49, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Rita Santamaria
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II”, Via D. Montesano 49, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Alfredo Colonna
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II”, Via D. Montesano 49, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Ruggero Angelico
- CSGI − Consorzio
interuniversitario per lo sviluppo di Sistemi a Grande Interfase, University of Florence, Via della Lastruccia
3, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
- DISTAAM, Università degli Studi del Molise, Via De Sanctis, 86100 Campobasso, Italy
| | - Aurel Radulescu
- Jülich Centre for Neutron Science, Garching Forschungszentrum, Lichtenbergstrasse
1, 85748 Garching bei München, Germany
| | - Gerardino D’Errico
- Dipartimento
di
Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II”, Complesso
Universitario di M. S. Angelo, Via Cinthia, 80126 Naples, Italy
- CSGI − Consorzio
interuniversitario per lo sviluppo di Sistemi a Grande Interfase, University of Florence, Via della Lastruccia
3, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Daniela Montesarchio
- Dipartimento
di
Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II”, Complesso
Universitario di M. S. Angelo, Via Cinthia, 80126 Naples, Italy
| | - Luigi Paduano
- Dipartimento
di
Scienze Chimiche, Università degli Studi di Napoli “Federico II”, Complesso
Universitario di M. S. Angelo, Via Cinthia, 80126 Naples, Italy
- CSGI − Consorzio
interuniversitario per lo sviluppo di Sistemi a Grande Interfase, University of Florence, Via della Lastruccia
3, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
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25
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Guarnieri D, Falanga A, Muscetti O, Tarallo R, Fusco S, Galdiero M, Galdiero S, Netti PA. Shuttle-mediated nanoparticle delivery to the blood-brain barrier. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2013; 9:853-862. [PMID: 23135878 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201201870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2012] [Revised: 09/12/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Many therapeutic drugs are excluded from entering the brain due to their lack of transport through the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The development of new strategies for enhancing drug delivery to the brain is of great importance in diagnostics and therapeutics of central nervous diseases. To overcome this problem, a viral fusion peptide (gH625) derived from the glycoprotein gH of Herpes simplex virus type 1 is developed, which possesses several advantages including high cell translocation potency, absence of toxicity of the peptide itself, and the feasibility as an efficient carrier for delivering therapeutics. Therefore, it is hypothesized that brain delivery of nanoparticles conjugated with gH625 should be efficiently enhanced. The surface of fluorescent aminated polystyrene nanoparticles (NPs) is functionalized with gH625 via a covalent binding procedure, and the NP uptake mechanism and permeation across in vitro BBB models are studied. At early incubation times, the uptake of NPs with gH625 by brain endothelial cells is greater than that of the NPs without the peptide, and their intracellular motion is mainly characterized by a random walk behavior. Most importantly, gH625 peptide decreases NP intracellular accumulation as large aggregates and enhances the NP BBB crossing. In summary, these results establish that surface functionalization with gH625 may change NP fate by providing a good strategy for the design of promising carriers to deliver drugs across the BBB for the treatment of brain diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Guarnieri
- Center for Advanced Biomaterials for Health Care@CRIB, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Napoli, Italy
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26
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Galdiero S, Falanga A, Tarallo R, Russo L, Galdiero E, Cantisani M, Morelli G, Galdiero M. Peptide inhibitors against herpes simplex virus infections. J Pept Sci 2013; 19:148-58. [PMID: 23389903 DOI: 10.1002/psc.2489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2012] [Revised: 01/07/2013] [Accepted: 01/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is a significant human pathogen causing mucocutaneous lesions primarily in the oral or genital mucosa. Although acyclovir (ACV) and related nucleoside analogs provide successful treatment, HSV remains highly prevalent worldwide and is a major cofactor for the spread of human immunodeficiency virus. Encephalitis, meningitis, and blinding keratitis are among the most severe diseases caused by HSV. ACV resistance poses an important problem for immunocompromised patients and highlights the need for new safe and effective agents; therefore, the development of novel strategies to eradicate HSV is a global public health priority. Despite the continued global epidemic of HSV and extensive research, there have been few major breakthroughs in the treatment or prevention of the virus since the introduction of ACV in the 1980s. A therapeutic strategy at the moment not fully addressed is the use of small peptide molecules. These can be either modeled on viral proteins or derived from antimicrobial peptides. Any peptide that interrupts protein-protein or viral protein-host cell membrane interactions is potentially a novel antiviral drug and may be a useful tool for elucidating the mechanisms of viral entry. This review summarizes current knowledge and strategies in the development of synthetic and natural peptides to inhibit HSV infectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefania Galdiero
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134, Napoli, Italy.
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27
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Tarallo R, Carberry TP, Falanga A, Vitiello M, Galdiero S, Galdiero M, Weck M. Dendrimers functionalized with membrane-interacting peptides for viral inhibition. Int J Nanomedicine 2013; 8:521-34. [PMID: 23429490 PMCID: PMC3575165 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s37739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
This contribution reports the synthesis of a poly(amide)-based dendrimer functionalized at the termini with a membrane-interacting peptide derived from the herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1 glycoprotein H, namely gH625–644. This peptide has been shown to interact with model membranes and to inhibit viral infectivity. The peptidodendrimer inhibits both HSV-1 and HSV-2 at a very early stage of the entry process, most likely through an interaction with the viral envelope glycoproteins; thus, preventing the virus from coming into close contact with cellular membranes, a prerequisite of viral internalization. The 50% inhibitory concentration was 100 and 300 nM against HSV-1 and HSV-2 respectively, with no evidence of cell toxicity at these concentrations. These results show that the functionalization of a dendrimer with the peptide sequence derived from an HSV glycoprotein shows promising inhibitory activity towards viruses of the Herpesviridae family.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rossella Tarallo
- Dipartimento di Farmacia, Università di Napoli Federico II, and DFM Scarl, Napoli, Italia
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28
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Novel mutations in gB and gH circumvent the requirement for known gD Receptors in herpes simplex virus 1 entry and cell-to-cell spread. J Virol 2012; 87:1430-42. [PMID: 23152509 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02804-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Both entry and cell-to-cell spread of herpes simplex virus (HSV) involve a cascade of cooperative interactions among the essential glycoproteins D, B, and H/L (gD, gB, and gH/gL, respectively) initiated by the binding of gD to a cognate HSV entry receptor. We previously reported that a variant (D285N/A549T) of glycoprotein B (gB:NT) enabled primary virus entry into cells that were devoid of typical HSV entry receptors. Here, we compared the activities of the gB:NT variant with those of a newly selected variant of glycoprotein H (gH:KV) and a frequently coselected gB variant (gB:S668N). In combination, gH:KV and gB:S668N enabled primary virus entry into cells that lacked established HSV entry receptors as efficiently as did gB:NT, but separately, each variant enabled only limited entry. Remarkably, gH:KV uniquely facilitated secondary virus spread between cells that lacked canonical entry receptors. Transient expression of the four essential entry glycoproteins revealed that gH:KV, but not gB:NT, induced fusion between cells lacking the standard receptors. Because the involvement of gD remained essential for virus spread and cell fusion, we propose that gH:KV mimics a transition state of gH that responds efficiently to weak signals from gD to reach the active state. Computational modeling of the structures of wild-type gH and gH:KV revealed relatively subtle differences that may have accounted for our experimental findings. Our study shows that (i) the dependence of HSV-1 entry and spread on specific gD receptors can be reduced by sequence changes in the downstream effectors gB and gH, and (ii) the relative roles of gB and gH are different in entry and spread.
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29
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Falanga A, Tarallo R, Vitiello G, Vitiello M, Perillo E, Cantisani M, D'Errico G, Galdiero M, Galdiero S. Biophysical characterization and membrane interaction of the two fusion loops of glycoprotein B from herpes simplex type I virus. PLoS One 2012; 7:e32186. [PMID: 22384173 PMCID: PMC3285657 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0032186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2011] [Accepted: 01/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The molecular mechanism of entry of herpesviruses requires a multicomponent fusion system. Cell invasion by Herpes simplex virus (HSV) requires four virally encoded glycoproteins: namely gD, gB and gH/gL. The role of gB has remained elusive until recently when the crystal structure of HSV-1 gB became available and the fusion potential of gB was clearly demonstrated. Although much information on gB structure/function relationship has been gathered in recent years, the elucidation of the nature of the fine interactions between gB fusion loops and the membrane bilayer may help to understand the precise molecular mechanism behind herpesvirus-host cell membrane fusion. Here, we report the first biophysical study on the two fusion peptides of gB, with a particular focus on the effects determined by both peptides on lipid bilayers of various compositions. The two fusion loops constitute a structural subdomain wherein key hydrophobic amino acids form a ridge that is supported on both sides by charged residues. When used together the two fusion loops have the ability to significantly destabilize the target membrane bilayer, notwithstanding their low bilayer penetration when used separately. These data support the model of gB fusion loops insertion into cholesterol enriched membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annarita Falanga
- Division of Biostructures, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Naples “Federico II”, Napoli, Italy
- Centro Interuniversitario di Ricerca sui Peptidi Bioattivi, University of Naples “Federico II”, Napoli, Italy
| | - Rossella Tarallo
- Division of Biostructures, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Naples “Federico II”, Napoli, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Vitiello
- Department of Chemistry, University of Naples “Federico II” and Consorzio per lo Studio dei Sistemi a Grande Interfase, CSGI, Monte Sant'Angelo, Napoli, Italy
| | | | - Emiliana Perillo
- Division of Biostructures, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Naples “Federico II”, Napoli, Italy
| | - Marco Cantisani
- Division of Biostructures, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Naples “Federico II”, Napoli, Italy
- Centro Interuniversitario di Ricerca sui Peptidi Bioattivi, University of Naples “Federico II”, Napoli, Italy
| | - Gerardino D'Errico
- Department of Chemistry, University of Naples “Federico II” and Consorzio per lo Studio dei Sistemi a Grande Interfase, CSGI, Monte Sant'Angelo, Napoli, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Galdiero
- Centro Interuniversitario di Ricerca sui Peptidi Bioattivi, University of Naples “Federico II”, Napoli, Italy
- Department of Experimental Medicine, II University of Naples, Napoli, Italy
| | - Stefania Galdiero
- Division of Biostructures, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Naples “Federico II”, Napoli, Italy
- Centro Interuniversitario di Ricerca sui Peptidi Bioattivi, University of Naples “Federico II”, Napoli, Italy
- Istituto di Biostrutture e Bioimmagini, CNR, Napoli, Italy
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30
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Vitiello G, Grimaldi M, D’Ursi AM, D’Errico G. The iAβ5p β-breaker peptide regulates the Aβ(25–35) interaction with lipid bilayers through a cholesterol-mediated mechanism. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2012; 417:88-92. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2011.11.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2011] [Accepted: 11/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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31
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Carter C. Alzheimer's Disease: APP, Gamma Secretase, APOE, CLU, CR1, PICALM, ABCA7, BIN1, CD2AP, CD33, EPHA1, and MS4A2, and Their Relationships with Herpes Simplex, C. Pneumoniae, Other Suspect Pathogens, and the Immune System. Int J Alzheimers Dis 2011; 2011:501862. [PMID: 22254144 PMCID: PMC3255168 DOI: 10.4061/2011/501862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2011] [Accepted: 09/02/2011] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease susceptibility genes, APP and gamma-secretase, are involved in the herpes simplex life cycle, and that of other suspect pathogens (C. pneumoniae, H. pylori, C. neoformans, B. burgdorferri, P. gingivalis) or immune defence. Such pathogens promote beta-amyloid deposition and tau phosphorylation and may thus be causative agents, whose effects are conditioned by genes. The antimicrobial effects of beta-amyloid, the localisation of APP/gamma-secretase in immunocompetent dendritic cells, and gamma secretase cleavage of numerous pathogen receptors suggest that this network is concerned with pathogen disposal, effects which may be abrogated by the presence of beta-amyloid autoantibodies in the elderly. These autoantibodies, as well as those to nerve growth factor and tau, also observed in Alzheimer's disease, may well be antibodies to pathogens, due to homology between human autoantigens and pathogen proteins. NGF or tau antibodies promote beta-amyloid deposition, neurofibrillary tangles, or cholinergic neuronal loss, and, with other autoantibodies, such as anti-ATPase, are potential agents of destruction, whose formation is dictated by sequence homology between pathogen and human proteins, and thus by pathogen strain and human genes. Pathogen elimination in the ageing population and removal of culpable autoantibodies might reduce the incidence and offer hope for a cure in this affliction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Carter
- PolygenicPathways, Flat 2, 40 Baldslow Road, Hastings, East Sussex TN34 2EY, UK
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Merlino A, Vitiello G, Grimaldi M, Sica F, Busi E, Basosi R, D’Ursi AM, Fragneto G, Paduano L, D’Errico G. Destabilization of Lipid Membranes by a Peptide Derived from Glycoprotein gp36 of Feline Immunodeficiency Virus: A Combined Molecular Dynamics/Experimental Study. J Phys Chem B 2011; 116:401-12. [DOI: 10.1021/jp204781a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Antonello Merlino
- Department of Chemistry, University of Naples ‘‘Federico II’’, Complesso di Monte S. Angelo, Via Cinthia, I-80126 Naples, Italy
- Istituto di Biostrutture e Bioimmagini, CNR, Naples, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Vitiello
- Department of Chemistry, University of Naples ‘‘Federico II’’, Complesso di Monte S. Angelo, Via Cinthia, I-80126 Naples, Italy
- CSGI (Consorzio per lo Sviluppo dei Sistemi a Grande Interfase), Florence, Italy
| | - Manuela Grimaldi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, University of Salerno, Fisciano, Italy
| | - Filomena Sica
- Department of Chemistry, University of Naples ‘‘Federico II’’, Complesso di Monte S. Angelo, Via Cinthia, I-80126 Naples, Italy
- Istituto di Biostrutture e Bioimmagini, CNR, Naples, Italy
| | - Elena Busi
- CSGI (Consorzio per lo Sviluppo dei Sistemi a Grande Interfase), Florence, Italy
- Department of Chemistry, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Riccardo Basosi
- CSGI (Consorzio per lo Sviluppo dei Sistemi a Grande Interfase), Florence, Italy
- Department of Chemistry, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
| | - Anna Maria D’Ursi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, University of Salerno, Fisciano, Italy
| | | | - Luigi Paduano
- Department of Chemistry, University of Naples ‘‘Federico II’’, Complesso di Monte S. Angelo, Via Cinthia, I-80126 Naples, Italy
- CSGI (Consorzio per lo Sviluppo dei Sistemi a Grande Interfase), Florence, Italy
| | - Gerardino D’Errico
- Department of Chemistry, University of Naples ‘‘Federico II’’, Complesso di Monte S. Angelo, Via Cinthia, I-80126 Naples, Italy
- CSGI (Consorzio per lo Sviluppo dei Sistemi a Grande Interfase), Florence, Italy
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D'Errico G, Ercole C, Lista M, Pizzo E, Falanga A, Galdiero S, Spadaccini R, Picone D. Enforcing the positive charge of N-termini enhances membrane interaction and antitumor activity of bovine seminal ribonuclease. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2011; 1808:3007-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2011.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2011] [Revised: 07/29/2011] [Accepted: 08/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Lipid composition modulates the interaction of peptides deriving from herpes simplex virus type I glycoproteins B and H with biomembranes. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2011; 1808:2517-26. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2011.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2011] [Revised: 07/01/2011] [Accepted: 07/12/2011] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Tarallo R, Accardo A, Falanga A, Guarnieri D, Vitiello G, Netti P, D'Errico G, Morelli G, Galdiero S. Clickable functionalization of liposomes with the gH625 peptide from Herpes simplex virus type I for intracellular drug delivery. Chemistry 2011; 17:12659-68. [PMID: 21956538 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201101425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Liposomes externally modified with the nineteen residues gH625 peptide, previously identified as a membrane-perturbing domain in the gH glycoprotein of Herpes simplex virus type I, have been prepared in order to improve the intracellular uptake of an encapsulated drug. An easy and versatile synthetic strategy, based on click chemistry, has been used to bind, in a controlled way, several copies of the hydrophobic gH625 peptide on the external surface of 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPG)-based liposomes. Electron paramagnetic resonance studies, on liposomes derivatized with gH625 peptides, which are modified with the 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl-4-amino-4-carboxylic acid (TOAC) spin label in several peptide positions, confirm the positioning of the coupled peptides on the liposome external surface, whereas dynamic light scattering measurements indicate an increase of the diameter of the liposomes of approximately 30% after peptide introduction. Liposomes have been loaded with the cytotoxic drug doxorubicin and their ability to penetrate inside cells has been evaluated by confocal microscopy experiments. Results suggest that liposomes functionalized with gH625 may act as promising intracellular targeting carriers for efficient delivery of drugs, such as chemotherapeutic agents, into tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rossella Tarallo
- Department of Biological Sciences, CIRPeB & IBB CNR, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
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A peptide derived from herpes simplex virus type 1 glycoprotein H: membrane translocation and applications to the delivery of quantum dots. NANOMEDICINE-NANOTECHNOLOGY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2011; 7:925-34. [PMID: 21664490 DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2011.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2010] [Revised: 03/31/2011] [Accepted: 04/15/2011] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Cell membranes are impermeable to most molecules that are not actively imported by living cells, including all macromolecules and even small molecules whose physiochemical properties prevent passive membrane diffusion. However, recently, we have seen the development of increasingly sophisticated methodology for intracellular drug delivery. Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), short peptides believed to enter cells by penetrating cell membranes, have attracted great interest in the hope of enhancing gene therapy, vaccine development and drug delivery. Nevertheless, to achieve an efficient intracellular delivery, further strategies to bypass the endocytotic pathway must be investigated. We report on a novel peptide molecule derived from glycoprotein gH of herpes simplex type I virus that is able to traverse the membrane bilayer and to transport a cargo into the cytoplasm with novel properties in comparison with existing CPPs. We use as cargo molecule quantum dots that do not significantly traverse the membrane bilayer on their own. FROM THE CLINICAL EDITOR Cell-penetrating peptides have recently attracted great interest in optimizing gene therapy, vaccine development and drug delivery. In this study, a peptide derived from glycoprotein gH of herpes simplex I is investigated from this standpoint.
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Wang X, Chi X, Wang M. Structural characteristics and antiviral activity of multiple peptides derived from MDV glycoproteins B and H. Virol J 2011; 8:190. [PMID: 21518442 PMCID: PMC3113977 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-8-190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2011] [Accepted: 04/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Marek's disease virus (MDV), which is widely considered to be a natural model of virus-induced lymphoma, has the potential to cause tremendous losses in the poultry industry. To investigate the structural basis of MDV membrane fusion and to identify new viral targets for inhibition, we examined the domains of the MDV glycoproteins gH and gB. Results Four peptides derived from the MDV glycoprotein gH (gHH1, gHH2, gHH3, and gHH5) and one peptide derived from gB (gBH1) could efficiently inhibit plaque formation in primary chicken embryo fibroblast cells (CEFs) with 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC50) of below 12 μM. These peptides were also significantly able to reduce lesion formation on chorioallantoic membranes (CAMs) of infected chicken embryos at a concentration of 0.5 mM in 60 μl of solution. The HR2 peptide from Newcastle disease virus (NDVHR2) exerted effects on MDV specifically at the stage of virus entry (i.e., in a cell pre-treatment assay and an embryo co-treatment assay), suggesting cross-inhibitory effects of NDV HR2 on MDV infection. None of the peptides exhibited cytotoxic effects at the concentrations tested. Structural characteristics of the five peptides were examined further. Conclusions The five MDV-derived peptides demonstrated potent antiviral activity, not only in plaque formation assays in vitro, but also in lesion formation assays in vivo. The present study examining the antiviral activity of these MDV peptides, which are useful as small-molecule antiviral inhibitors, provides information about the MDV entry mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojia Wang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, No, 2, Yuan Ming Yuan West Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100193, PR China.
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Cascade of events governing cell-cell fusion induced by herpes simplex virus glycoproteins gD, gH/gL, and gB. J Virol 2010; 84:12292-9. [PMID: 20861251 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01700-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpesviruses minimally require the envelope proteins gB and gH/gL for virus entry and cell-cell fusion; herpes simplex virus (HSV) additionally requires the receptor-binding protein gD. Although gB is a class III fusion protein, gH/gL does not resemble any documented viral fusion protein at a structural level. Based on those data, we proposed that gH/gL does not function as a cofusogen with gB but instead regulates the fusogenic activity of gB. Here, we present data to support that hypothesis. First, receptor-positive B78H1-C10 cells expressing gH/gL fused with receptor-negative B78H1 cells expressing gB and gD (fusion in trans). Second, fusion occurred when gH/gL-expressing C10 cells preexposed to soluble gD were subsequently cocultured with gB-expressing B78 cells. In contrast, prior exposure of gB-expressing C10 cells to soluble gD did not promote subsequent fusion with gH/gL-expressing B78 cells. These data suggest that fusion involves activation of gH/gL by receptor-bound gD. Most importantly, soluble gH/gL triggered a low level of fusion of C10 cells expressing gD and gB; a much higher level was achieved when gB-expressing C10 cells were exposed to a combination of soluble gH/gL and gD. These data clearly show that gB acts as the HSV fusogen following activation by gD and gH/gL. We suggest the following steps leading to fusion: (i) conformational changes to gD upon receptor binding, (ii) alteration of gH/gL by receptor-activated gD, and (iii) upregulation of the fusogenic potential of gB following its interaction with activated gH/gL. The third step may be common to other herpesviruses.
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Galdiero S, Falanga A, Vitiello M, Raiola L, Russo L, Pedone C, Isernia C, Galdiero M. The presence of a single N-terminal histidine residue enhances the fusogenic properties of a Membranotropic peptide derived from herpes simplex virus type 1 glycoprotein H. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:17123-36. [PMID: 20348105 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.114819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1)-induced membrane fusion remains one of the most elusive mechanisms to be deciphered in viral entry. The structure resolution of glycoprotein gB has revealed the presence of fusogenic domains in this protein and pointed out the key role of gB in the entry mechanism of HSV-1. A second putative fusogenic glycoprotein is represented by the heterodimer comprising the membrane-anchored glycoprotein H (gH) and the small secreted glycoprotein L, which remains on the viral envelope in virtue of its non-covalent interaction with gH. Different domains scattered on the ectodomain of HSV-1 gH have been demonstrated to display membranotropic characteristics. The segment from amino acid 626 to 644 represents the most fusogenic region identified by studies with synthetic peptides and model membranes. Herein we have identified the minimal fusogenic sequence present on gH. An enlongation at the N terminus of a single histidine (His) has proved to profoundly increase the fusogenic activity of the original sequence. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) studies have shown that the addition of the N-terminal His contributes to the formation and stabilization of an alpha-helical domain with high fusion propensity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefania Galdiero
- Department of Experimental Medicine, II University of Naples, Via De Crecchio 7, Napoli 80138, Italy.
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