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Ostapiuk A, Urbanska EM. Kynurenic acid in neurodegenerative disorders-unique neuroprotection or double-edged sword? CNS Neurosci Ther 2022; 28:19-35. [PMID: 34862742 PMCID: PMC8673711 DOI: 10.1111/cns.13768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Revised: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS The family of kynurenine pathway (KP) metabolites includes compounds produced along two arms of the path and acting in clearly opposite ways. The equilibrium between neurotoxic kynurenines, such as 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HK) or quinolinic acid (QUIN), and neuroprotective kynurenic acid (KYNA) profoundly impacts the function and survival of neurons. This comprehensive review summarizes accumulated evidence on the role of KYNA in Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases, and discusses future directions of potential pharmacological manipulations aimed to modulate brain KYNA. DISCUSSION The synthesis of specific KP metabolites is tightly regulated and may considerably vary under physiological and pathological conditions. Experimental data consistently imply that shift of the KP to neurotoxic branch producing 3-HK and QUIN formation, with a relative or absolute deficiency of KYNA, is an important factor contributing to neurodegeneration. Targeting specific brain regions to maintain adequate KYNA levels seems vital; however, it requires the development of precise pharmacological tools, allowing to avoid the potential cognitive adverse effects. CONCLUSIONS Boosting KYNA levels, through interference with the KP enzymes or through application of prodrugs/analogs with high bioavailability and potency, is a promising clinical approach. The use of KYNA, alone or in combination with other compounds precisely influencing specific populations of neurons, is awaiting to become a significant therapy for neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra Ostapiuk
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular PharmacologyDepartment of Experimental and Clinical PharmacologyMedical University of LublinLublinPoland
- Present address:
Department of Clinical Digestive OncologyKU LeuvenLeuvenBelgium
| | - Ewa M. Urbanska
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular PharmacologyDepartment of Experimental and Clinical PharmacologyMedical University of LublinLublinPoland
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Rossi F, Miggiano R, Ferraris DM, Rizzi M. The Synthesis of Kynurenic Acid in Mammals: An Updated Kynurenine Aminotransferase Structural KATalogue. Front Mol Biosci 2019; 6:7. [PMID: 30873412 PMCID: PMC6400995 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2019.00007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Kynurenic acid (KYNA) is a bioactive compound that is produced along the kynurenine pathway (KP) during tryptophan degradation. In a few decades, KYNA shifted from being regarded a poorly characterized by-product of the KP to being considered a main player in many aspects of mammalian physiology, including the control of glutamatergic and cholinergic synaptic transmission, and the coordination of immunomodulation. The renewed attention being paid to the study of KYNA homeostasis is justified by the discovery of selective and potent inhibitors of kynurenine aminotransferase II, which is considered the main enzyme responsible for KYNA synthesis in the mammalian brain. Since abnormally high KYNA levels in the central nervous system have been associated with schizophrenia and cognitive impairment, these inhibitors promise the development of novel anti-psychotic and pro-cognitive drugs. Here, we summarize the currently available structural information on human and rodent kynurenine aminotransferases (KATs) as the result of global efforts aimed at describing the full complement of mammalian isozymes. These studies highlight peculiar features of KATs that can be exploited for the development of isozyme-specific inhibitors. Together with the optimization of biochemical assays to measure individual KAT activities in complex samples, this wealth of knowledge will continue to foster the identification and rational design of brain penetrant small molecules to attenuate KYNA synthesis, i.e., molecules capable of lowering KYNA levels without exposing the brain to the harmful withdrawal of KYNA-dependent neuroprotective actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franca Rossi
- Biochemistry and Biocrystallography Unit, DSF-Dipartimento di Scienze del Farmaco, University of Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
| | - Riccardo Miggiano
- Biochemistry and Biocrystallography Unit, DSF-Dipartimento di Scienze del Farmaco, University of Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
| | - Davide M Ferraris
- Biochemistry and Biocrystallography Unit, DSF-Dipartimento di Scienze del Farmaco, University of Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
| | - Menico Rizzi
- Biochemistry and Biocrystallography Unit, DSF-Dipartimento di Scienze del Farmaco, University of Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
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Effect of substituents on 3(S)-amino-1-hydroxy-3,4-dihydroquinolin-2(1H)-one: a DFT study. Theor Chem Acc 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s00214-018-2403-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Jayawickrama GS, Nematollahi A, Sun G, Church WB. Improvement of kynurenine aminotransferase-II inhibitors guided by mimicking sulfate esters. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0196404. [PMID: 29689093 PMCID: PMC5915280 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0196404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The mammalian kynurenine aminotransferase (KAT) enzymes are a family of related isoforms that are pyridoxal 5’-phosphate-dependent, responsible for the irreversible transamination of kynurenine to kynurenic acid. Kynurenic acid is implicated in human diseases such as schizophrenia where it is found in elevated levels and consequently KAT-II, as the isoform predominantly responsible for kynurenic acid production in the brain, has been targeted for the development of specific inhibitors. One class of compounds that have also shown inhibitory activity towards the KAT enzymes are estrogens and their sulfate esters. Estradiol disulfate in particular is very strongly inhibitory and it appears that the 17-sulfate makes a significant contribution to its potency. The work here demonstrates that the effect of this moiety can be mirrored in existing KAT-II inhibitors, from the development of two novel inhibitors, JN-01 and JN-02. Both inhibitors were based on NS-1502 (IC50: 315 μM), but the deliberate placement of a sulfonamide group significantly improved the potency of JN-01 (IC50: 73.8 μM) and JN-02 (IC50: 112.8 μM) in comparison to the parent compound. This 3–4 fold increase in potency shows the potential of these moieties to be accommodated in the KAT-II active site and the effect they can have on improving inhibitors, and the environments in the KAT-II have been suitably modelled using docking calculations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gayan S. Jayawickrama
- Group in Biomolecular Structure and Informatics, Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Alireza Nematollahi
- Group in Biomolecular Structure and Informatics, Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Guanchen Sun
- Group in Biomolecular Structure and Informatics, Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - William Bret Church
- Group in Biomolecular Structure and Informatics, Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- * E-mail:
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Jayawickrama GS, Nematollahi A, Sun G, Church WB. Fragment Screening of Human Kynurenine Aminotransferase-II. SLAS DISCOVERY 2018. [PMID: 29537924 DOI: 10.1177/2472555218764620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Kynurenine aminotransferase-II (KAT-II) is a pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP)-dependent enzyme that acts in the tryptophan metabolic pathway by catalyzing the transamination of kynurenine into kynurenic acid (KYNA). It is one of four isoforms in the KAT family, of which it is the primary homologue responsible for KYNA production in the mammalian brain. KAT-II is targeted for inhibition as KYNA is implicated in diseases such as schizophrenia, where it is found in elevated concentrations. Previously, many different approaches have been taken to develop KAT-II inhibitors, and herein fragment-based drug design (FBDD) approaches have been exploited to provide further lead compounds that can be designed into novel inhibitors. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) was used to screen a fragment library containing 1000 compounds, of which 41 hits were identified. These hits were further evaluated with SPR, and 18 were selected for inhibition studies. From these hits, two fragments, F6037-0164 and F0037-7280, were pursued and determined to have an IC50 of 524.5 (± 25.6) μM and 115.2 (± 4.5) μM, respectively. This strategy shows the viability of using FBDD in gleaning knowledge about KAT-II inhibition and generating leads for the production of KAT-II inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gayan S Jayawickrama
- 1 Group in Biomolecular Structure and Informatics, Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Alireza Nematollahi
- 1 Group in Biomolecular Structure and Informatics, Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Guanchen Sun
- 1 Group in Biomolecular Structure and Informatics, Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - W Bret Church
- 1 Group in Biomolecular Structure and Informatics, Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Pellicciari R, Liscio P, Giacchè N, De Franco F, Carotti A, Robertson J, Cialabrini L, Katsyuba E, Raffaelli N, Auwerx J. α-Amino-β-carboxymuconate-ε-semialdehyde Decarboxylase (ACMSD) Inhibitors as Novel Modulators of De Novo Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD +) Biosynthesis. J Med Chem 2018; 61:745-759. [PMID: 29345930 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.7b01254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
NAD+ has a central function in linking cellular metabolism to major cell-signaling and gene-regulation pathways. Defects in NAD+ homeostasis underpin a wide range of diseases, including cancer, metabolic disorders, and aging. Although the beneficial effects of boosting NAD+ on mitochondrial fitness, metabolism, and lifespan are well established, to date, no therapeutic enhancers of de novo NAD+ biosynthesis have been reported. Herein we report the discovery of 3-[[[5-cyano-1,6-dihydro-6-oxo-4-(2-thienyl)-2-pyrimidinyl]thio]methyl]phenylacetic acid (TES-1025, 22), the first potent and selective inhibitor of human ACMSD (IC50 = 0.013 μM) that increases NAD+ levels in cellular systems. The results of physicochemical-property, ADME, and safety profiling, coupled with in vivo target-engagement studies, support the hypothesis that ACMSD inhibition increases de novo NAD+ biosynthesis and position 22 as a first-class molecule for the evaluation of the therapeutic potential of ACMSD inhibition in treating disorders with perturbed NAD+ supply or homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Paride Liscio
- TES Pharma S.r.l. , IT-06073 Corciano, Perugia, Italy
| | | | | | - Andrea Carotti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia , IT-06123 Perugia, Italy
| | | | - Lucia Cialabrini
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche , IT-60131 Ancona, Italy
| | - Elena Katsyuba
- Laboratory of Integrative and Systems Physiology, Interfaculty Institute of Bioengineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Nadia Raffaelli
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche , IT-60131 Ancona, Italy
| | - Johan Auwerx
- Laboratory of Integrative and Systems Physiology, Interfaculty Institute of Bioengineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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Jayawickrama GS, Nematollahi A, Sun G, Gorrell MD, Church WB. Inhibition of human kynurenine aminotransferase isozymes by estrogen and its derivatives. Sci Rep 2017; 7:17559. [PMID: 29242525 PMCID: PMC5730616 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-17979-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2017] [Accepted: 11/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The kynurenine aminotransferase (KAT) enzymes are pyridoxal 5′-phosphate-dependent homodimers that catalyse the irreversible transamination of kynurenine into kynurenic acid (KYNA) in the tryptophan metabolic pathway. Kynurenic acid is implicated in cognitive diseases such as schizophrenia, and several inhibitors have been reported that selectively target KAT-II as it is primarily responsible for kynurenic acid production in the human brain. Not only is schizophrenia a sexually dimorphic condition, but women that have schizophrenia have reduced estrogen levels in their serum. Estrogens are also known to interact in the kynurenine pathway therefore exploring these interactions can yield a better understanding of the condition and improve approaches in ameliorating its effects. Enzyme inhibitory assays and binding studies showed that estradiol disulfate is a strong inhibitor of KAT-I and KAT-II (IC50: 291.5 μM and 26.3 μM, respectively), with estradiol, estradiol 3-sulfate and estrone sulfate being much weaker (IC50 > 2 mM). Therefore it is possible that estrogen levels can dictate the balance of kynurenic acid in the brain. Inhibition assay results and modelling suggests that the 17-sulfate moiety in estradiol disulfate is very important in improving its potency as an inhibitor, increasing the inhibition by approximately 10–100 fold compared to estradiol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gayan S Jayawickrama
- Group in Biomolecular Structure and Informatics, Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Alireza Nematollahi
- Group in Biomolecular Structure and Informatics, Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Guanchen Sun
- Group in Biomolecular Structure and Informatics, Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Mark D Gorrell
- Molecular Hepatology Laboratory, Centenary Institute and Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - W Bret Church
- Group in Biomolecular Structure and Informatics, Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
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Hou QQ, Wang JH, Gao J, Liu YJ, Liu CB. QM/MM studies on the catalytic mechanism of phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2012; 1824:533-41. [PMID: 22326747 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2012.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2011] [Revised: 01/05/2012] [Accepted: 01/26/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Epinephrine is a naturally occurring adrenomedullary hormone that transduces environmental stressors into cardiovascular actions. As the only route in the catecholamine biosynthetic pathway, Phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT) catalyzes the synthesis of epinephrine. To elucidate the detailed mechanism of enzymatic catalysis of PNMT, combined quantum-mechanical/molecular-mechanical (QM/MM) calculations were performed. The calculation results reveal that this catalysis contains three elementary steps: the deprotonation of protonated norepinphrine, the methyl transferring step and deprotonation of the methylated norepinphrine. The methyl transferring step was proved to be the rate-determining step undergoing a SN2 mechanism with an energy barrier of 16.4kcal/mol. During the whole catalysis, two glutamic acids Glu185 and Glu219 were proved to be loaded with different effects according to the calculations results of the mutants. These calculation results can be used to explain the experimental observations and make a good complementarity for the previous QM study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Q Q Hou
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
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