Metastasis as a systemic disease: molecular insights and clinical implications

HPK1 Dysregulation-Associated NK Cell Dysfunction and Defective Expansion Promotes Metastatic Melanoma Progression

Distant metastasis, the leading cause of cancer death, is efficiently kept in check by immune surveillance. Studies have uncovered peripheral natural killer (NK) cells as key antimetastatic effectors and their dysregulation during metastasis. However, the molecular mechanism governing NK cell dysfunction links to metastasis remains elusive. Herein, MAP4K1 encoding HPK1 is aberrantly overexpressed in dysfunctional NK cells in the periphery and the metastatic site. Conditional HPK1 overexpression in NK cells suffices to exacerbate melanoma lung metastasis but not primary tumor growth. Conversely, MAP4K1-deficient mice are resistant to metastasis and further protected by combined immune-checkpoint inhibitors. Mechanistically, HPK1 restrains NK cell cytotoxicity and expansion via activating receptors. Likewise, HPK1 limits human NK cell activation and associates with melanoma NK cell dysfunction couples to TGF-β1 and patient response to immune checkpoint therapy. Thus, HPK1 is an intracellular checkpoint controlling NK-target cell responses, which is dysregulated and hijacked by tumors during metastatic progression.

Mitochondrial dysfunction significantly contributes to the sensitivity of tumor cells to anoikis and their metastatic potential

It is well-known that the survival of metastatic cells during their dissemination plays an important role in metastasis. However, does this mean that the final result of the metastatic cascade (the volume of metastatic damage to distant organs and tissues) depends on, or at least correlates with, the degree of resistance to anoikis (distinctive hallmarks of metastatic cells)? This question remains open.The aim of the work was to study in vitro the changes in the survival rates, proliferative activity, oxidative stress, and glycolysis intensity during three days of anchorage-dependent and anchorage-independent growth of two Lewis lung carcinoma cell lines (LLC and LLC/R9) and compare these changes with the status of mitochondria and metastatic potential of the cells in vivo.

Methods

The number and volume of lung metastases were estimated for each cell line after intramuscular inoculation of the cells in C57Bl/6 mice. For the in vitro study, the cells were seeded on Petri dishes pretreated with poly-HEMA or untreated dishes and then allowed to grow for 3 days. Cell viability, cell cycle progression, the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS), glucose consumption and lactate production rates were investigated daily in both growth conditions. An electron microscopy study of intracellular structures was carried out.

Results

The study showed (as far as we know for the first time) a correlation between the metastatic potential of cells (determined in vivo) and their sensitivity to anoikis (assessed in vitro). The transition of LLC/R9 cells with an inherently defective mitochondrial system to the conditions of anchorage-independent growth was characterized by a decrease in survival, a slowdown in growth rates, an increase in both glucose consumption rate and intracellular ROS levels and manyfold lower metastatic potential, compared to highly metastatic LLC cells with the normal mitochondrial system.

Prognostic nutritional index and neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio predict toxicities and prognosis in patients with cervical cancer treated with curative radiochemotherapy

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to investigate the influence of immunonutritional factors on treatment-related toxicities and survival outcomes in patients with cervical cancer undergoing definitive radiochemotherapy.

METHODS

Patients with cervical cancer who received curative radiochemotherapy between 2016 and 2021 were retrospectively investigated. Pretreatment prognostic nutritional index (PNI), neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), monocyte-lymphocyte ratio (MLR), and platelet-lymphocyte ratio (PLR) were measured. Survival outcomes, acute and late toxicities were evaluated.

RESULTS

Among the 138 patients, those with larger tumor diameters had significantly lower pre-treatment PNI (p = 0.005). Pre-treatment immunonutritional factors were predictive of clinical survival, whereas post-treatment factors did not correlate with prognosis. Patients with low pre-treatment PNI (<49.5) or high NLR (>2.4) had shorter progression-free survival (PFS, HR: 1.86, p = 0.045 for PNI; HR: 3.15, p = 0.002 for NLR) and overall survival (OS, HR: 1.80, p = 0.048 for PNI; HR: 3.83, p = 0.015 for NLR). High pre-treatment NLR was associated with an increased risk of acute diarrhea (p = 0.049) and late severe toxicities (p = 0.046). Combined analysis revealed that pre-treatment good nutritional status and low systemic inflammation were linked to longer PFS (p = 0.007) and OS (p = 0.002), and poor nutritional status and substantial systemic inflammation were associated with higher rates of late severe toxicities (p = 0.036), with higher prognostic value in advanced stage patients.

CONCLUSION

Pretreatment immunonutritional measures serve as quantitative biomarkers for predicting survivals and treatment toxicities in patients with cervical cancer treated with definitive radiochemotherapy.

New insights into the correlations between circulating tumor cells and target organ metastasis

Organ-specific metastasis is the primary cause of cancer patient death. The distant metastasis of tumor cells to specific organs depends on both the intrinsic characteristics of the tumor cells and extrinsic factors in their microenvironment. During an intermediate stage of metastasis, circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are released into the bloodstream from primary and metastatic tumors. CTCs harboring aggressive or metastatic features can extravasate to remote sites for continuous colonizing growth, leading to further lesions. In the past decade, numerous studies demonstrated that CTCs exhibited huge clinical value including predicting distant metastasis, assessing prognosis and monitoring treatment response et al. Furthermore, increasingly numerous experiments are dedicated to identifying the key molecules on or inside CTCs and exploring how they mediate CTC-related organ-specific metastasis. Based on the above molecules, more and more inhibitors are being developed to target CTCs and being utilized to completely clean CTCs, which should provide promising prospects to administer advanced tumor. Recently, the application of various nanomaterials and microfluidic technologies in CTCs enrichment technology has assisted to improve our deep insights into the phenotypic characteristics and biological functions of CTCs as a potential therapy target, which may pave the way for us to make practical clinical strategies. In the present review, we mainly focus on the role of CTCs being involved in targeted organ metastasis, especially the latest molecular mechanism research and clinical intervention strategies related to CTCs.

Analysis of cortical cell polarity by imaging flow cytometry

Metastasis is the main cause of cancer-related death and therapies specifically targeting metastasis are highly needed. Cortical cell polarity (CCP) is a prometastatic property of circulating tumor cells affecting their ability to exit blood vessels and form new metastases that constitute a promising point of attack to prevent metastasis. However, conventional fluorescence microscopy on single cells and manual quantification of CCP are time-consuming and unsuitable for screening regulators. In this study, we developed an imaging flow cytometry-based method for high-throughput screening of factors affecting CCP in melanoma cells. The artificial intelligence-supported analysis method we developed is highly reproducible, accurate, and orders of magnitude faster than manual quantification. Additionally, this method is flexible and can be adapted to include additional cellular parameters. In a small-scale pilot experiment using polarity-, cytoskeleton-, or membrane-affecting drugs, we demonstrate that our workflow provides a straightforward and efficient approach for screening factors affecting CCP in cells in suspension and provide insights into the specific function of these drugs in this cellular system. The method and workflow presented here will facilitate large-scale studies to reveal novel cell-intrinsic as well as systemic factors controlling CCP during metastasis.

The molecular mechanism of CD81 antibody inhibition of metastasis

Metastases are reduced in CD81KO mice. In addition, a unique anti-CD81 antibody, 5A6, inhibits metastasis in vivo and invasion and migration in vitro. Here, we probed the structural components of CD81 required for the antimetastatic activity induced by 5A6. We found that the removal of either cholesterol or the intracellular domains of CD81 did not affect inhibition by the antibody. We show that the uniqueness of 5A6 is due not to increased affinity but rather to its recognition of a specific epitope on the large extracellular loop of CD81. Finally, we present a number of CD81 membrane-associated partners that may play a role in mediating the 5A6 antimetastatic attributes, including integrins and transferrin receptors.

TME-targeted approaches of brain metastases and its clinical therapeutic evidence

The tumor microenvironment (TME), which includes both cellular and non-cellular elements, is now recognized as one of the major regulators of the development of primary tumors, the metastasis of which occurs to specific organs, and the response to therapy. Development of immunotherapy and targeted therapies have increased knowledge of cancer-related inflammation Since the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCB) limit immune cells from entering from the periphery, it has long been considered an immunological refuge. Thus, tumor cells that make their way "to the brain were believed to be protected from the body's normal mechanisms of monitoring and eliminating them. In this process, the microenvironment and tumor cells at different stages interact and depend on each other to form the basis of the evolution of tumor brain metastases. This paper focuses on the pathogenesis, microenvironmental changes, and new treatment methods of different types of brain metastases. Through the systematic review and summary from macro to micro, the occurrence and development rules and key driving factors of the disease are revealed, and the clinical precision medicine of brain metastases is comprehensively promoted. Recent research has shed light on the potential of TME-targeted and potential treatments for treating Brain metastases, and we'll use that knowledge to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of these approaches.

Dissecting metastasis using preclinical models and methods

Metastasis has long been understood to lead to the overwhelming majority of cancer-related deaths. However, our understanding of the metastatic process, and thus our ability to prevent or eliminate metastases, remains frustratingly limited. This is largely due to the complexity of metastasis, which is a multistep process that likely differs across cancer types and is greatly influenced by many aspects of the in vivo microenvironment. In this Review, we discuss the key variables to consider when designing assays to study metastasis: which source of metastatic cancer cells to use and where to introduce them into mice to address different questions of metastasis biology. We also examine methods that are being used to interrogate specific steps of the metastatic cascade in mouse models, as well as emerging techniques that may shed new light on previously inscrutable aspects of metastasis. Finally, we explore approaches for developing and using anti-metastatic therapies, and how mouse models can be used to test them.

Metastasis

Most cancer-associated deaths occur due to metastasis, yet our understanding of metastasis as an evolving, heterogeneous, systemic disease and of how to effectively treat it is still emerging. Metastasis requires the acquisition of a succession of traits to disseminate, variably enter and exit dormancy, and colonize distant organs. The success of these events is driven by clonal selection, the potential of metastatic cells to dynamically transition into distinct states, and their ability to co-opt the immune environment. Here, we review the main principles of metastasis and highlight emerging opportunities to develop more effective therapies for metastatic cancer.

Gastroduodenal Perforation in Cancer Patients: Association with Chemotherapy and Prognosis

Background: Gastroduodenal perforation stands out as one of the complications in cancer patients. Despite its high mortality, its characteristics are still poorly described. This study aimed to evaluate the characteristics and outcomes of cancer patients who had gastroduodenal perforation, and the influence of chemotherapy (CMT) in these cases. Method: A retrospective analysis of patients who underwent emergency surgery with an intraoperative finding of gastroduodenal perforation. Patients who performed CMT within 60 days before perforation were considered as the CMT group. Results: Among 45 patients included, 16 (35.5%) were classified as the CMT group and the remaining 29 (64.5%) patients as the non-CMT group. There was no difference between the groups regarding sex, age, BMI, comorbidity, and laboratory exams. ECOG 2-3 was significantly more frequent in the CMT group (68.8% vs. 34.5% p = 0.027). Major postoperative complications were similar between both groups (75% vs. 58.6%, p = 0.272). The sepsis of abdominal focus was the main postoperative complication. The 30-day mortality was 55.6%, with no difference between non-CMT and CMT groups (62.5% vs. 51.7%, respectively; p = 0.486). A multivariate analysis of risk factors showed that only an age of ≥65 years was related to 30-day mortality. Conclusions: Patients with gastroduodenal perforation and oncologic treatment present high mortality, regardless of receiving recent CMT.

The impact of VEGF on cancer metastasis and systemic disease

Metastasis is the leading cause of cancer-associated mortality and the underlying mechanisms of cancer metastasis remain elusive. Both blood and lymphatic vasculatures are essential structures for mediating distal metastasis. The vasculature plays multiple functions, including accelerating tumor growth, sustaining the tumor microenvironment, supplying growth and invasive signals, promoting metastasis, and causing cancer-associated systemic disease. VEGF is one of the key angiogenic factors in tumors and participates in the initial stage of tumor development, progression and metastasis. Consequently, VEGF and its receptor-mediated signaling pathways have become one of the most important therapeutic targets for treating various cancers. Today, anti-VEGF-based antiangiogenic drugs (AADs) are widely used in the clinic for treating different types of cancer in human patients. Despite nearly 20-year clinical experience with AADs, the impact of these drugs on cancer metastasis and systemic disease remains largely unknown. In this review article, we focus our discussion on tumor VEGF in cancer metastasis and systemic disease and mechanisms underlying AADs in clinical benefits.

Biology of cancer; from cellular and molecular mechanisms to developmental processes and adaptation

Cancer research has been largely focused on the cellular and molecular levels of investigation. Recent data show that not only the cell but also the extracellular matrix plays a major role in the progression of malignancy. In this way, the cells and the extracellular matrix create a specific local microenvironment that supports malignant development. At the same time, cancer implies a systemic evolution which is closely related to developmental processes and adaptation. Consequently, there is currently a real gap between the local investigation of cancer at the microenvironmental level, and the pathophysiological approach to cancer as a systemic disease. In fact, the cells and the matrix are not only complementary structures but also interdependent components that act synergistically. Such relationships lead to cell-matrix integration, a supracellular form of biological organization that supports tissue development. The emergence of this supracellular level of organization, as a structure, leads to the emergence of the supracellular control of proliferation, as a supracellular function. In humans, proliferation is generally involved in developmental processes and adaptation. These processes suppose a specific configuration at the systemic level, which generates high-order guidance for local supracellular control of proliferation. In conclusion, the supracellular control of proliferation act as an interface between the downstream level of cell division and differentiation, and upstream level of developmental processes and adaptation. Understanding these processes and their disorders is useful not only to complete the big picture of malignancy as a systemic disease, but also to open new treatment perspectives in the form of etiopathogenic (supracellular or informational) therapies.

Morbidity and Mortality of Neutropenic Patients in Visceral Surgery: A Narrative Review

Leukocytes are essential for the function of the immune system and cell–cell interaction in the human body, but hematological diseases as well as chemotherapeutic treatments due to cancer lead to occasionally or even permanent leukocyte deficiency. Normally, more than 50% of leukocytes are neutrophilic granulocytes, and leukopenia is, therefore, mostly characterized by a decrease in neutrophilic granulocytes. The consequence of neutropenia is increased susceptibility to infection, but also healing disorders are suggestable due to the disturbed cell–cell interaction. While there is no surgical treatment for leucocyte disorders, patients suffering from neutropenia are sometimes in need of surgery for other reasons. Less is known about the morbidity and mortality of this patients, which is why this narrative review critically summarizes the results of recent research in this particular field. The results of this review suggest that neutropenic patients in need of emergency surgery have a higher mortality risk compared to non-neutropenic patients. In contrast, in elective surgery, there was not a clear tendency for a higher mortality risk of neutropenic patients. The role of neutrophilic granulocytes in inflammation and immunity in surgical patients is emphasized by the results, but most of the evaluated studies showed methodological flaws due to small sample sizes or risk of bias. Further research has to evaluate the risk for postoperative complications, particularly of infectious complications such as surgical site infections, in neutropenic patients undergoing elective surgery, and should address the role of neutrophilic function in postoperative morbidity and mortality.

Pre-Treatment Hemoglobin Concentration and Absolute Monocyte Count as Independent Prognostic Factors for Survival in Localized or Locally Advanced Prostate Cancer Patients Undergoing Radiotherapy

The prognostic value of inflammatory indices, such as the absolute monocyte count (AMC), has been a subject of interest in recent prostate cancer (PCa) studies, while hemoglobin concentration (HGB) has been recognized as a survival factor in castration-resistant metastatic prostate cancer, but its value remains unclear in localized diseases. The aim of this study was to test the prognostic value of these two simple and inexpensive biomarkers for survival and was based on a cohort of 1016 patients treated with primary radiotherapy and androgen deprivation therapy for localized or locally advanced intermediate- or high-risk PCa. Complete survival data were available for all cases and were based on the National Cancer Registry, with a median observation time of 120 months (Interquartile Range (IQR) 80.9–144.7). Missing blood test data were supplemented using the Nearest Neighbor Imputation, and the Cox Proportional Hazards Regression model was used for analysis. The median age was 68.8 years (IQR 63.3–73.5). The five-year overall survival was 82.8%, and 508 patients were alive at the time of analysis. The median time between blood tests and the first day of radiotherapy was 6 days (IQR 0–19). HGB (p = 0.009) and AMC (p = 0.003) were independent prognostic factors for survival, along with age, Gleason Grade Group, clinical T stage and maximum prostate-specific antigen concentration. This study demonstrates that HGB and AMC can be useful biomarkers for overall survival in patients treated with radiotherapy for localized intermediate- or high-risk PCa.

Understanding the basis of major depressive disorder in oncological patients: Biological links, clinical management, challenges, and lifestyle medicine

In recent years, the incidence of different types of cancer and patient survival have been rising, as well as their prevalence. The increase in survival in recent years exposes the patients to a set of stressful factors such as more rigorous follow-up and more aggressive therapeutic regimens that, added to the diagnosis of the disease itself, cause an increase in the incidence of depressive disorders. These alterations have important consequences for the patients, reducing their average survival and quality of life, and for these reasons, special emphasis has been placed on developing numerous screening tests and early recognition of depressive symptoms. Despite that cancer and major depressive disorder are complex and heterogeneous entities, they also share many critical pathophysiological mechanisms, aiding to explain this complex relationship from a biological perspective. Moreover, a growing body of evidence is supporting the relevant role of lifestyle habits in the prevention and management of both depression and cancer. Therefore, the present study aims to perform a thorough review of the intricate relationship between depression and cancer, with a special focus on its biological links, clinical management, challenges, and the central role of lifestyle medicine as adjunctive and preventive approaches to improve the quality of life of these patients.

The role of cellular quiescence in cancer - beyond a quiet passenger

Quiescence, the ability to temporarily halt proliferation, is a conserved process that initially allowed survival of unicellular organisms during inhospitable times and later contributed to the rise of multicellular organisms, becoming key for cell differentiation, size control and tissue homeostasis. In this Review, we explore the concept of cancer as a disease that involves abnormal regulation of cellular quiescence at every step, from malignant transformation to metastatic outgrowth. Indeed, disrupted quiescence regulation can be linked to each of the so-called 'hallmarks of cancer'. As we argue here, quiescence induction contributes to immune evasion and resistance against cell death. In contrast, loss of quiescence underlies sustained proliferative signalling, evasion of growth suppressors, pro-tumorigenic inflammation, angiogenesis and genomic instability. Finally, both acquisition and loss of quiescence are involved in replicative immortality, metastasis and deregulated cellular energetics. We believe that a viewpoint that considers quiescence abnormalities that occur during oncogenesis might change the way we ask fundamental questions and the experimental approaches we take, potentially contributing to novel discoveries that might help to alter the course of cancer therapy.

Clonal barcoding with qPCR detection enables live cell functional analyses for cancer research

Single-cell analysis methods are valuable tools; however, current approaches do not easily enable live cell retrieval. That is a particular issue when further study of cells that were eliminated during experimentation could provide critical information. We report a clonal molecular barcoding method, called SunCatcher, that enables longitudinal tracking and live cell functional analysis. From complex cell populations, we generate single cell-derived clonal populations, infect each with a unique molecular barcode, and retain stocks of individual barcoded clones (BCs). We develop quantitative PCR-based and next-generation sequencing methods that we employ to identify and quantify BCs in vitro and in vivo. We apply SunCatcher to various breast cancer cell lines and combine respective BCs to create versions of the original cell lines. While the heterogeneous BC pools reproduce their original parental cell line proliferation and tumor progression rates, individual BCs are phenotypically and functionally diverse. Early spontaneous metastases can also be identified and quantified. SunCatcher thus provides a rapid and sensitive approach for studying live single-cell clones and clonal evolution, and performing functional analyses.

Leveraging single cell sequencing to unravel intra-tumour heterogeneity and tumour evolution in human cancers

Intra-tumour heterogeneity and tumour evolution are well-documented phenomena in human cancers. While the advent of next-generation sequencing technologies has facilitated the large-scale capture of genomic data, the field of single cell genomics is nascent but rapidly advancing and generating many new insights into the complex molecular mechanisms of tumour biology. In this review, we provide an overview of current single cell DNA sequencing technologies, exploring how recent methodological advancements have enumerated new insights into intra-tumour heterogeneity and tumour evolution. Areas highlighted include the potential power of single cell genome sequencing studies to explore evolutionary dynamics contributing to tumourigenesis through to progression, metastasis and therapy resistance. We also explore the use of in-situ sequencing technologies to study intra-tumour heterogeneity in a spatial context, as well as examining the use of single cell genomics to perform lineage tracing in both normal and malignant tissues. Finally, we consider the use of multi-modal single cell sequencing technologies. Taken together, it is hoped that these many facets of single cell genome sequencing will improve our understanding of tumourigenesis, progression and lethality in cancer leading to the development of novel therapies. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Mini-Review: Can the Metastatic Cascade Be Inhibited by Targeting CD147/EMMPRIN to Prevent Tumor Recurrence?

Solid tumors metastasize very early in their development, and once the metastatic cell is lodged in a remote organ, it can proliferate to generate a metastatic lesion or remain dormant for long periods. Dormant cells represent a real risk for future tumor recurrence, but because they are typically undetectable and insensitive to current modalities of treatment, it is difficult to treat them in time. We describe the metastatic cascade, which is the process that allows tumor cells to detach from the primary tumor, migrate in the tissue, intravasate and extravasate the lymphatics or a blood vessel, adhere to a remote tissue and eventually outgrow. We focus on the critical enabling role of the interactions between tumor cells and immune cells, especially macrophages, in driving the metastatic cascade, and on those stages that can potentially be targeted. In order to prevent the metastatic cascade and tumor recurrence, we would need to target a molecule that is involved in all of the steps of the process, and evidence is brought to suggest that CD147/EMMPRIN is such a protein and that targeting it blocks metastasis and prevents tumor recurrence.

The clinicopathology and survival characteristics of patients with POLE proofreading mutations in endometrial carcinoma: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Endometrial carcinoma (EC) is classified into four distinct molecular subgroups. Patients with polymerase epsilon exonuclease domain mutated (POLE-EDM) tumors have the best prognosis of all. This meta-analysis consolidated the clinicopathology variations reported in the POLE-mutant subtype and survival parameters in patients with EC.

Methods

The following internet data bases were searched: PubMed, Web of science, Embase and Scimage directory. Data was extracted from eligible studies including sample size, number of positive POLE-mutant cases, EDM sequencing information, clinicopathologic, and survival data. Meta-analysis and a random-effects model produced pooled estimates of POLE prognostic parameters using 95% confidence intervals (CI), hazard ratios (HR), and odds ratios (OR).

Results

The meta-analysis included 11 cohort studies comprising 5508 EC patients (442 POLE EDM tumors). Patients with POLE mutant EC were associated with improved disease specific survival (HR = 0.408, 95% CI: 0.306 to 0.543) and progression-free survival (HR = 0.231, 95% CI: 0.117 to 0.456). POLE-mutated tumors were mostly endometrioid histology (84.480%; 95% CI: 77.237 to 90.548), although not significantly more than wild type tumors (OR = 1.386; p = 0.073). The POLE mutant tumors significantly present (p<0.001) at Federation of International of Gynecologists and Obstetricians (FIGO) lower stages I-II (OR = 2.955, p<0.001) and highest grade III (OR = 1.717, P = 0.003). The tumors are significantly associated with invasion less than half (<50%) of the myometrium (OR = 1.765, p = 0.001), but not deeply invasive EC (MI>50%, OR = 0.83, p = 0.34). POLE mutations significantly protected against lymph node metastases (OR = 0.202, p = 0.001), and have no clear association with lymph-vascular space invasion (OR = 0.967, 95% 0.713–1.310, p = 0.826). The tumors are predominantly of low ESMO risk stratification distribution (40.356%; 95% CI: 27.577 to 53.838).

Conclusions

POLE mutations serve as an important biomarker of favorable prognosis in EC. The tumors are characteristically high grade, early stage, and remain localized in the endometrium with reduced likelihood of lymph node metastasis for improved survival prospects and the lowest risk classification. These findings have implications for medical management of EC.

Hallmarks of exosomes

Exosomes are a new horizon in modern therapy, presenting exciting new opportunities for advanced drug delivery and targeted release. Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles with a size range of 30-100 nm, secreted by all cell types in the human body and carrying a unique collection of DNA fragments, RNA species, lipids, protein biomarkers, transcription factors and metabolites. miRNAs are one of the most common RNA species in exosomes, and they play a role in a variety of biological processes including exocytosis, hematopoiesis and angiogenesis, as well as cellular communication via exosomes. Exosomes can act as cargo to transport this information from donor cells to near and long-distance target cells, participating in the reprogramming of recipient cells.

Pre-metastatic Niche Formation by Neutrophils in Different Organs

Metastasis is a multistep process requiring tumor cell detachment from the primary tumor and migration to secondary target organs through the lymphatic or blood circulatory systems. In certain cancers, specific organs are predisposed to metastases. Metastatic homing to distant organs is orchestrated by the formation of supportive metastatic microenvironment in such organs, called pre-metastatic niche. Formation of pre-metastatic niche depends on the primary tumor-mediated recruitment of bone marrow-derived myeloid cells, including neutrophils. The contribution of neutrophils to the formation of the pre-metastatic niche is recently getting growing attention. Of note, these cells can either stimulate or inhibit metastatic seeding, depending on the activation of these cells. Here, we concentrate on pro-metastatic functions of neutrophils and the mechanisms involved in this process. Pro-tumor neutrophils support the formation of pre-metastatic niche, attract tumor cells, and directly stimulate proliferation of these cells. Moreover, immunosuppressive neutrophils, also called granulocytic MDSC, promote metastatic progression by the inhibition of antitumor T-cells. Altogether, neutrophil pro-tumor properties significantly affect metastatic spread in the host. Here, we provide an up-to-date overview of roles neutrophils play in the regulation of metastatic processes in different organs.

The Expression of Circulating miR-497 and Metadherin in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Relation to the Tumor Characteristics and Patients' Survival

Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the prognostic significance and relationship of miR-497 and metadherin to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) tumor characteristics and patients’ survival. Methods: This study enrolled 120 (60 HCC patients and 60 healthy) subjects. Serum miR-497 and metadherin mRNA relative expression were analyzed by real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. The overall survival (OS) of HCC patients was assessed using the Kaplan–Meier curve and log-rank test. Results: Serum miR-497 showed statistically significant downregulation in HCC patients compared to controls (p < 0.001). Serum metadherin mRNA relative expression was significantly upregulated in HCC patients compared to controls (p < 0.001). Both serum miR-497 and metadherin mRNA expression were significantly associated with the number of tumor foci (p = 0.028 and 0.001, respectively), tumor size (p = 0.022 and <0.001, respectively), nodal metastasis (p = 0.003 and 0.003, respectively), distant metastasis (p = 0.003 and 0.003, respectively), vascular invasion (p = 0.040 and <0.001, respectively), and BCLC staging (p = 0.043 and 0.004, respectively). The overall survival was lower in patients with low miR-497 expression (p = 0.046) and in patients with high metadherin expression (p < 0.001). Conclusions: The expression levels of miR-497 showed downregulation in HCC patients, but metadherin expression showed upregulation. Both markers were inversely related and closely correlated with tumor characteristics and patients’ survival.

Breast Cancer with Bone Metastasis: Molecular Insights and Clinical Management

Despite the remarkable advances in the diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer patients, the presence or development of metastasis remains an incurable condition. Bone is one of the most frequent sites of distant dissemination and negatively impacts on patient's survival and overall frailty. The interplay between tumor cells and the bone microenvironment induces bone destruction and tumor progression. To date, the clinical management of bone metastatic breast cancer encompasses anti-tumor systemic therapies along with bone-targeting agents, aimed at slowing bone resorption to reduce the risk of skeletal-related events. However, their effect on patients' survival remains controversial. Unraveling the biology that governs the interplay between breast neoplastic cells and bone tissue would provide means for the development of new therapeutic agents. This article outlines the state-of-the art in the characterization and targeting the bone metastasis in breast cancer, focusing on the major clinical and translational studies on this clinically relevant topic.

The Quality of End-of-Life Care for Women Deceased From Metastatic Breast Cancer

Metastatic breast cancer (MBC) carries unique disease burdens with potential for poor-quality end-of-life (EOL) care. It is the purpose of this article to explore the association of poor-quality EOL care indicators according to key tumor, demographic, social, and clinical factors. End-of-life quality indicators were based on Emanuel and Emanuel's good death model in conjunction with Earle et al (2003). A single-institution retrospective chart review of women deceased from MBC between November 2016 and November 2019 with double-verification chart review was completed. Data were analyzed with descriptive, correlative, and comparative statistics. Total sample was N = 167 women, with 14.4% (n = 24) Black and 85.6% (n = 143) White. Mean (SD) age was 55.3 (11.73) years. Overall, MBC survival was 3.12 years (SD, 3.31): White women, 41.2 months (3.4 years), and Black women, 19 months (1.6 years). A total of 64.1% (n = 107) experienced 1 or more indicators of poor-quality EOL care. Patients more likely to experience poor-quality EOL care were older (P = .03), estrogen negative (P = .08), human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 negative (P = .07), from more deprived neighborhoods (P = .02), married (P = .05), and with physical (P = .001) and mental (P = .002) comorbidities. Understanding sociodemographic and clinical factors associated with poor EOL MBC care may be useful for proactive patient navigation.

Systemic immune responses are associated with molecular characteristics of circulating tumor cells in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

Systemic immunity mediated by circulating immune cells may affect clinical features, as well as the characteristics of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) in patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). The present study aimed to analyze the influence of circulating immune cells, using their markers, on clinical features to investigate the association between systemic immunity and the molecular characteristics of CTCs. Circulating immune-cell markers were associated with disease progression and clinical outcomes in patients with HNSCC. Meanwhile, there was no significant association between the presence of CTCs and systemic immune-related markers. Moreover, phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit a expression in CTCs was significantly associated with higher lymphocyte counts (P=0.035) and an increased prognostic nutrition index (P=0.0157). Patients with CTCs expressing CD47 exhibited significantly higher neutrophil (P=0.0031) and monocyte (P=0.0016) counts. Patients with CTCs expressing programmed cell death 1 ligand 2 exhibited lower C-reactive protein (CRP) levels (P=0.0271) and a decreased CRP/albumin ratio (P=0.0207). The current results suggested that the interaction between CTCs and circulating immune cells may provide survival advantages via molecular alterations to CTCs.

Metastasis-Initiating Cells and Ecosystems

Metastasis is initiated and sustained through therapy by cancer cells with stem-like and immune-evasive properties, termed metastasis-initiating cells (MIC). Recent progress suggests that MICs result from the adoption of a normal regenerative progenitor phenotype by malignant cells, a phenotype with intrinsic programs to survive the stresses of the metastatic process, undergo epithelial-mesenchymal transitions, enter slow-cycling states for dormancy, evade immune surveillance, establish supportive interactions with organ-specific niches, and co-opt systemic factors for growth and recurrence after therapy. Mechanistic understanding of the molecular mediators of MIC phenotypes and host tissue ecosystems could yield cancer therapeutics to improve patient outcomes. SIGNIFICANCE: Understanding the origins, traits, and vulnerabilities of progenitor cancer cells with the capacity to initiate metastasis in distant organs, and the host microenvironments that support the ability of these cells to evade immune surveillance and regenerate the tumor, is critical for developing strategies to improve the prevention and treatment of advanced cancer. Leveraging recent progress in our understanding of the metastatic process, here we review the nature of MICs and their ecosystems and offer a perspective on how this knowledge is informing innovative treatments of metastatic cancers.

MicroRNA-497-5p Is Downregulated in Hepatocellular Carcinoma and Associated with Tumorigenesis and Poor Prognosis in Patients

Background

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have been demonstrated to exhibit important regulatory roles in multiple malignancies, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). hsa-miR-497-5p was reported to involve in cancer progression and poor prognosis in many kinds of tumors. However, the expression and its clinical significance of hsa-miR-497-5p in HCC remain unclear.

Methods

In the present study, we investigated the expression of hsa-miR-497-5p in HCC and analyzed the correction of clinical features with prognosis. The expression levels of hsa-miR-497-5p and potential target genes were analyzed in HCC and adjacent noncancerous tissues using The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) datasets. Real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) was used to analyze hsa-miR-497-5p levels in 328 HCC tissues and 30 paired adjacent noncancer tissues. Overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS) of patients with HCC were assessed using the Kaplan-Meier method and the log-rank test.

Results

The hsa-miR-497-5p expression levels were decreased, and its target genes ACTG1, CSNK1D, PPP1CC, and BIRC5 were upregulated in HCC tissues compared with normal tissues. Lower levels of hsa-miR-497-5p expression and higher levels of the four target genes were significantly associated with higher tumor diameter. Moreover, patients with lower hsa-miR-497-5p expression and higher target genes levels had shorter OS.

Conclusion

The expression levels of hsa-miR-497-5p may play an important regulatory role in HCC and are closely correlated with HCC progression and poor prognosis in patients. The hsa-miR-497-5p may be a specific therapeutic target for the treatment of HCC.

Elements and evolutionary determinants of genomic divergence between paired primary and metastatic tumors

Can metastatic-primary (M-P) genomic divergence measured from next generation sequencing reveal the natural history of metastatic dissemination? This remains an open question of utmost importance in facilitating a deeper understanding of metastatic progression, and thereby, improving its prevention. Here, we utilize mathematical and computational modeling to tackle this question as well as to provide a framework that illuminates the fundamental elements and evolutionary determinants of M-P divergence. Our framework facilitates the integration of sequencing detectability of somatic variants, and hence, paves the way towards bridging the measurable between-tumor heterogeneity with analytical modeling and interpretability. We show that the number of somatic variants of the metastatic seeding cell that are experimentally undetectable in the primary tumor, can be characterized as the path of the phylogenetic tree from the last appearing variant of the seeding cell back to the most recent detectable variant. We find that the expected length of this path is principally determined by the decay in detectability of the variants along the seeding cell's lineage; and thus, exhibits a significant dependence on the underlying tumor growth dynamics. A striking implication of this fact, is that dissemination from an advanced detectable subclone of the primary tumor can lead to an abrupt drop in the expected measurable M-P divergence, thereby breaking the previously assumed monotonic relation between seeding time and M-P divergence. This is emphatically verified by our single cell-based spatial tumor growth simulation, where we find that M-P divergence exhibits a non-monotonic relationship with seeding time when the primary tumor grows under branched and linear evolution. On the other hand, a monotonic relationship holds when we condition on the dynamics of progressive diversification, or by restricting the seeding cells to always originate from undetectable subclones. Our results highlight the fact that a precise understanding of tumor growth dynamics is the sine qua non for exploiting M-P divergence to reconstruct the chronology of metastatic dissemination. The quantitative models presented here enable further careful evaluation of M-P divergence in association with crucial evolutionary and sequencing parameters.

High-grade tumours promote growth of other less-malignant tumours in the same prostate

Prostate cancer is a multifocal disease, but if and how individual prostate tumours influence each other is largely unknown. We therefore explored signs of direct or indirect tumour–tumour interactions in experimental models and patient samples. Low‐metastatic AT1 and high‐metastatic MatLyLu (MLL) Dunning rat prostate cancer cells were injected into separate lobes of the ventral prostate of immunocompetent rats. AT1 tumours growing in the same prostate as MLL tumours had increased tumour size and proliferation compared to AT1 tumours growing alone. In addition, the vasculature and macrophage density surrounding the AT1 tumours were increased by MLL tumour closeness. In patient prostatectomy samples, selected to contain an index tumour [tumour with the highest grade, International Society of Urological Pathology (ISUP) grade 1, 2, 3 or 4] and a low‐grade satellite tumour (ISUP grade 1), cell proliferation in low‐grade satellite tumours gradually increased with increasing histological grade of the index tumour. The density of blood vessels and CD68⁺ macrophages also increased around the low‐grade satellite tumour if a high‐grade index tumour was present. This suggests that high‐grade tumours, by changing the prostate microenvironment, may increase the aggressiveness of low‐grade lesions in the organ. Future studies are needed to explore the mechanisms behind tumour–tumour interactions and their clinical importance. © 2020 The Authors. The Journal of Pathology published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. on behalf of The Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

Emerging paradigms in metastasis research

Historically, therapy of metastatic disease has essentially been limited to using strategies that were identified and established to shrink primary tumors. The limited efficacy of such treatments on overall patient survival stems from diverging intrinsic and extrinsic characteristics of a primary tumor and metastases originating therefrom. To develop better therapeutic strategies to treat metastatic disease, there is an urgent need to shift the paradigm in preclinical metastasis research by conceptualizing metastatic dissemination, colonization, and growth as spatiotemporally dynamic processes and identifying rate-limiting vulnerabilities of the metastatic cascade. Clinically, while metastatic colonization remains the most attractive therapeutic avenue, comprehensive understanding of earlier steps may unravel novel metastasis-restricting therapies for presurgical neoadjuvant application. Moving beyond a primary tumor-centric view, this review adopts a holistic approach to understanding the spatial and temporal progression of metastasis. After reviewing recent developments in metastasis research, we highlight some of the grand challenges and propose a framework to expedite mechanism-based discovery research feeding the translational pipeline.

Metastatic Colonization: Escaping Immune Surveillance

Cancer immunotherapy has shifted the paradigm in cancer therapy by revitalizing immune responses against tumor cells. Specifically, in primary tumors cancer cells evolve in an immunosuppressive microenvironment, which protects them from immune attack. However, during tumor progression, some cancer cells leave the protective tumor mass, disseminating and seeding secondary organs. These initial disseminated tumor cells (DTCs) should potentially be susceptible to recognition by the immune system in the new host tissues. Although Natural Killer or T cells eliminate some of these DTCs, a fraction escape anti-tumor immunity and survive, thus giving rise to metastatic colonization. How DTCs interact with immune cells and the underpinnings that regulate imperfect immune responses during tumor dissemination remain poorly understood. Uncovering such mechanisms of immune evasion may contribute to the development of immunotherapy specifically targeting DTCs. Here we review current knowledge about systemic and site-specific immune-cancer crosstalk in the early steps of metastasis formation. Moreover, we highlight how conventional cancer therapies can shape the pre-metastatic niche enabling immune escape of newly arrived DTCs.

Cancer progression and the invisible phase of metastatic colonization

Metastatic dissemination occurs very early in the malignant progression of a cancer but the clinical manifestation of metastases often takes years. In recent decades, 5-year survival of patients with many solid cancers has increased due to earlier detection, local disease control and adjuvant therapies. As a consequence, we are confronted with an increase in late relapses as more antiproliferative cancer therapies prolong disease courses, raising questions about how cancer cells survive, evolve or stop growing and finally expand during periods of clinical latency. I argue here that the understanding of early metastasis formation, particularly of the currently invisible phase of metastatic colonization, will be essential for the next stage in adjuvant therapy development that reliably prevents metachronous metastasis.

Long Noncoding RNA OIP5-AS1 Promotes the Progression of Liver Hepatocellular Carcinoma via Regulating the hsa-miR-26a-3p/EPHA2 Axis

Numerous studies have suggested that dysregulated long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) contributed to the development and progression of many cancers. lncRNA OIP5 antisense RNA 1 (OIP5-AS1) has been reported to be increased in several cancers. However, the roles of OIP5-AS1 in liver hepatocellular carcinoma (LIHC) remain to be investigated. In this study, we demonstrated that OIP5-AS1 was upregulated in LIHC tissue specimens and its overexpression was associated with the poor survival of patients with LIHC. Furthermore, loss-of function experiments indicated that OIP5-AS1 promoted cell proliferation and inhibited cell apoptosis both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, binding sites between OIP5-AS1 and hsa-miR-26a-3p as well as between hsa-miR-26a-3p and EPHA2 were confirmed by luciferase assays. Finally, a rescue assay was performed to prove the effect of the OIP5-AS1/hsa-miR-26a-3p/EPHA2 axis on LIHC cell biological behaviors. Based on all of the above findings, our results suggested that OIP5-AS1 promoted LIHC cell proliferation and invasion via regulating the hsa-miR-26a-3p/EPHA2 axis.

Epigenetic memory in development and disease: Unraveling the mechanism

Epigenetic memory is an essential process of life that governs the inheritance of predestined functional characteristics of normal cells and the newly acquired properties of cells affected by cancer and other diseases from parental to progeny cells. Unraveling the molecular basis of epigenetic memory dictated by protein and RNA factors in conjunction with epigenetic marks that are erased and re-established during embryogenesis/development during the formation of somatic, stem and disease cells will have far reaching implications to our understanding of embryogenesis/development and various diseases including cancer. While there has been enormous progress made, there are still gaps in knowledge which includes, the identity of unique epigenetic memory factors (EMFs) and epigenome coding enzymes/co-factors/scaffolding proteins involved in the assembly of defined "epigenetic memorysomes" and the epigenome marks that constitute collections of gene specific epigenetic memories corresponding to specific cell types and physiological conditions. A better understanding of the molecular basis for epigenetic memory will play a central role in improving diagnostics and prognostics of disease states and aid the development of targeted therapeutics of complex diseases.

Tiam1 high expression is associated with poor prognosis in solid cancers: A meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

A number of studies have attempted to determine the prognostic value of T-cell lymphoma invasion and metastasis-inducing factor 1 (Tiam1) in patients with solid cancers, but the reported results were of inconsistency. Thus, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to exhaustively evaluate the prognostic role of Tiam1 expression in patients with solid cancers.

METHODS

We retrieved literature published in between 1994 and April 22th, 2019 through searching PubMed, Web of Science and China national knowledge infrastructure (CNKI). Hazard ratios (HRs) coupled with 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were used to assess the relationship of Tiam1 expression and overall survival (OS), and disease-free survival (DFS).

RESULTS

A total of 2647 patients with solid cancers in 20 studies were enrolled in our meta-analysis eventually. The pooled results showed that Tiam1 high expression was closely correlated with poor OS (HR = 2.17, 95% CI: 1.80-2.61, P = .000) and DFS (pooled HR = 1.95, 95% CI = 1.58-2.40, P = .000). Moreover, our subgroup analysis and sensitivity analysis demonstrated the reliability and stability of our pooled results.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this meta-analysis confirmed that Tiam1 higher expression positively correlated with OS and DFS, suggesting that Tiam1 may act as a valuable prognostic predictor and therapeutic target for patients with solid cancers. Nevertheless, in future more homogeneous and prospective studies should be performed to further support our findings.