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Kwaśniewska A, Miazga K, Majczyński H, Jordan LM, Zawadzka M, Sławińska U. Noradrenergic Components of Locomotor Recovery Induced by Intraspinal Grafting of the Embryonic Brainstem in Adult Paraplegic Rats. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21155520. [PMID: 32752261 PMCID: PMC7432907 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21155520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Revised: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Intraspinal grafting of serotonergic (5-HT) neurons was shown to restore plantar stepping in paraplegic rats. Here we asked whether neurons of other phenotypes contribute to the recovery. The experiments were performed on adult rats after spinal cord total transection. Grafts were injected into the sub-lesional spinal cord. Two months later, locomotor performance was tested with electromyographic recordings from hindlimb muscles. The role of noradrenergic (NA) innervation was investigated during locomotor performance of spinal grafted and non-grafted rats using intraperitoneal application of α2 adrenergic receptor agonist (clonidine) or antagonist (yohimbine). Morphological analysis of the host spinal cords demonstrated the presence of tyrosine hydroxylase positive (NA) neurons in addition to 5-HT neurons. 5-HT fibers innervated caudal spinal cord areas in the dorsal and ventral horns, central canal, and intermediolateral zone, while the NA fiber distribution was limited to the central canal and intermediolateral zone. 5-HT and NA neurons were surrounded by each other’s axons. Locomotor abilities of the spinal grafted rats, but not in control spinal rats, were facilitated by yohimbine and suppressed by clonidine. Thus, noradrenergic innervation, in addition to 5-HT innervation, plays a potent role in hindlimb movement enhanced by intraspinal grafting of brainstem embryonic tissue in paraplegic rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Kwaśniewska
- Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland; (A.K.); (K.M.); (H.M.); (M.Z.)
| | - Krzysztof Miazga
- Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland; (A.K.); (K.M.); (H.M.); (M.Z.)
| | - Henryk Majczyński
- Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland; (A.K.); (K.M.); (H.M.); (M.Z.)
| | - Larry M. Jordan
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0J9, Canada;
| | - Małgorzata Zawadzka
- Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland; (A.K.); (K.M.); (H.M.); (M.Z.)
| | - Urszula Sławińska
- Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland; (A.K.); (K.M.); (H.M.); (M.Z.)
- Correspondence:
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Majczyński H, Cabaj AM, Jordan LM, Sławińska U. Contribution of 5-HT 2 Receptors to the Control of the Spinal Locomotor System in Intact Rats. Front Neural Circuits 2020; 14:14. [PMID: 32425760 PMCID: PMC7212388 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2020.00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Applying serotonergic (5-HT) agonists or grafting of fetal serotonergic cells into the spinal cord improves locomotion after spinal cord injury. Little is known about the role of 5-HT receptors in the control of voluntary locomotion, so we administered inverse agonists of 5-HT2 (Cyproheptadine; Cypr), 5-HT2A neutral antagonist (Volinanserin; Volin), 5-HT2C neutral antagonist (SB 242084), and 5-HT2B/2C inverse agonist (SB 206553) receptors intrathecally in intact rats and monitored their effects on unrestrained locomotion. An intrathecal cannula was introduced at the low thoracic level and pushed caudally until the tip reached the L2/L3 or L5/L6 spinal segments. Locomotor performance was evaluated using EMG activity of hindlimb muscles during locomotion on a 2 m long runway. Motoneuron excitability was estimated using EMG recordings during dorsi- and plantar flexion at the ankle. Locomotion was dramatically impaired after the blockage of 5-HT2A receptors. The effect of Cypr was more pronounced than that of Volin since in the L5/L6 rats Cypr (but not Volin) induced significant alteration of the strength of interlimb coordination followed by total paralysis. These agents significantly decreased locomotor EMG amplitude and abolished or substantially decreased stretch reflexes. Blocking 5-HT2B/2C receptors had no effect either on locomotion or reflexes. We suggest that in intact rats serotonin controls timing and amplitude of muscle activity by acting on 5-HT2A receptors on both CPG interneurons and motoneurons, while 5-HT2B/2C receptors are not involved in control of the locomotor pattern in lumbar spinal cord.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henryk Majczyński
- Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Anna M Cabaj
- Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Larry M Jordan
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Urszula Sławińska
- Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
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Jordan LM, McVagh JR, Noga BR, Cabaj AM, Majczyński H, Sławińska U, Provencher J, Leblond H, Rossignol S. Cholinergic mechanisms in spinal locomotion-potential target for rehabilitation approaches. Front Neural Circuits 2014; 8:132. [PMID: 25414645 PMCID: PMC4222238 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2014.00132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2014] [Accepted: 10/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous experiments implicate cholinergic brainstem and spinal systems in the control of locomotion. Our results demonstrate that the endogenous cholinergic propriospinal system, acting via M2 and M3 muscarinic receptors, is capable of consistently producing well-coordinated locomotor activity in the in vitro neonatal preparation, placing it in a position to contribute to normal locomotion and to provide a basis for recovery of locomotor capability in the absence of descending pathways. Tests of these suggestions, however, reveal that the spinal cholinergic system plays little if any role in the induction of locomotion, because MLR-evoked locomotion in decerebrate cats is not prevented by cholinergic antagonists. Furthermore, it is not required for the development of stepping movements after spinal cord injury, because cholinergic agonists do not facilitate the appearance of locomotion after spinal cord injury, unlike the dramatic locomotion-promoting effects of clonidine, a noradrenergic α-2 agonist. Furthermore, cholinergic antagonists actually improve locomotor activity after spinal cord injury, suggesting that plastic changes in the spinal cholinergic system interfere with locomotion rather than facilitating it. Changes that have been observed in the cholinergic innervation of motoneurons after spinal cord injury do not decrease motoneuron excitability, as expected. Instead, the development of a “hyper-cholinergic” state after spinal cord injury appears to enhance motoneuron output and suppress locomotion. A cholinergic suppression of afferent input from the limb after spinal cord injury is also evident from our data, and this may contribute to the ability of cholinergic antagonists to improve locomotion. Not only is a role for the spinal cholinergic system in suppressing locomotion after SCI suggested by our results, but an obligatory contribution of a brainstem cholinergic relay to reticulospinal locomotor command systems is not confirmed by our experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larry M Jordan
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Spinal Cord Research Centre, University of Manitoba Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - J R McVagh
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Spinal Cord Research Centre, University of Manitoba Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - B R Noga
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miami, FL, USA
| | - A M Cabaj
- Department of Neurophysiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology PAS Warsaw, Poland ; Department of Nerve-Muscle Engineering, Institute of Biocybernetics and Biomedical Engineering PAS Warsaw, Poland
| | - H Majczyński
- Department of Neurophysiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology PAS Warsaw, Poland
| | - Urszula Sławińska
- Department of Neurophysiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology PAS Warsaw, Poland
| | - J Provencher
- Groupe de Recherche sur le Système Nerveux Central and Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - H Leblond
- Groupe de Recherche sur le Système Nerveux Central and Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Serge Rossignol
- Groupe de Recherche sur le Système Nerveux Central and Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal Montreal, QC, Canada
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Grella SL, Funk D, Coen K, Li Z, Lê AD. Role of the kappa-opioid receptor system in stress-induced reinstatement of nicotine seeking in rats. Behav Brain Res 2014; 265:188-97. [PMID: 24583188 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.02.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2013] [Revised: 02/14/2014] [Accepted: 02/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The correlation between stress and smoking is well established. The mechanisms that underlie this relationship are, however, unclear. Recent data suggest that the kappa-opioid system is involved in the mediation of negative affective states associated with stress thereby promoting drug addiction and relapse. Pharmacological treatments targeting the kappa-opioid system and this mechanism may prove to be useful therapeutics for nicotine addiction in the future. OBJECTIVES We sought to determine whether there was a stress-specific role of the kappa-opioid system in nicotine seeking behavior. METHOD Groups of male Long Evans rats were trained to self-administer nicotine intravenously; their operant responding for nicotine was extinguished prior to tests of reinstatement. Pretreatment with systemic injections of the kappa-opioid receptor (KOR) antagonist nor-binaltorphimine (nor-BNI) was given prior to tests of stress (systemic injections of yohimbine (YOH)) or cue-induced reinstatement of nicotine seeking. Systemic injections of the KOR agonist U50,488 were also given in a test for reinstatement of nicotine seeking. RESULTS Nor-BNI pretreatment at 1h and 24h prior to testing was able to block YOH-induced, but not cue-induced reinstatement of nicotine seeking. U50,488 reinstated nicotine seeking behavior in a dose-dependent manner. CONCLUSIONS These findings support the hypothesis that the kappa-opioid system is involved in relapse to nicotine seeking induced by stress, but not by conditioned cues. KOR antagonists such as nor-BNI may therefore be useful novel therapeutic agents for decreasing the risk of stress-induced drug relapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie L Grella
- Neurobiology of Alcohol Laboratory, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 33 Russell St., Toronto, Ontario M5S 2S1, Canada; Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, University of Toronto, Medical Sciences Building, Rm 4207, 1 King's College Circle, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Douglas Funk
- Neurobiology of Alcohol Laboratory, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 33 Russell St., Toronto, Ontario M5S 2S1, Canada.
| | - Kathy Coen
- Neurobiology of Alcohol Laboratory, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 33 Russell St., Toronto, Ontario M5S 2S1, Canada
| | - Zhaoxia Li
- Neurobiology of Alcohol Laboratory, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 33 Russell St., Toronto, Ontario M5S 2S1, Canada
| | - A D Lê
- Neurobiology of Alcohol Laboratory, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 33 Russell St., Toronto, Ontario M5S 2S1, Canada; Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, University of Toronto, Medical Sciences Building, Rm 4207, 1 King's College Circle, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, 250 College Street, 8th Floor, Toronto, Ontario M5T 1R8, Canada
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Effect of yohimbine stress on reacquisition of oxycodone seeking in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2012; 222:247-55. [PMID: 22249360 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-012-2640-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2011] [Accepted: 01/01/2012] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Stress, a powerful precipitant of drug seeking during abstinence, may also accelerate the return to pathological patterns of intake after initial instances of drug reuse. OBJECTIVE To explore the effect of stress on a learning process underlying relapse, this study assessed the effect of yohimbine on reacquisition of oxycodone seeking. METHODS One hundred thirty-two male Sprague-Dawley rats underwent place conditioning with oxycodone (2 mg/kg, SC; ×6 days), extinction (vehicle × 6 days), and reconditioning with 0, 0.25, 2, or 5 mg/kg oxycodone (2 days). Yohimbine (0, 2.5, or 5 mg/kg, IP) was administered 30 min prior to reconditioning. RESULTS Pretreatment with 2.5 mg/kg yohimbine increased, while 5 mg/kg yohimbine decreased, reacquisition of oxycodone-induced place preference. A follow-up study (n = 30) further indicated that the effect of yohimbine was specific to reacquisition. CONCLUSION The observation that yohimbine can enhance reacquisition of oxycodone seeking supports the hypothesis that stress can facilitate learning processes involved in the unfolding of relapse.
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Noga BR, Johnson DMG, Riesgo MI, Pinzon A. Locomotor-activated neurons of the cat. II. Noradrenergic innervation and colocalization with NEα 1a or NEα 2b receptors in the thoraco-lumbar spinal cord. J Neurophysiol 2011; 105:1835-49. [PMID: 21307324 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00342.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Norepinephrine (NE) is a strong modulator and/or activator of spinal locomotor networks. Thus noradrenergic fibers likely contact neurons involved in generating locomotion. The aim of the present study was to investigate the noradrenergic innervation of functionally related, locomotor-activated neurons within the thoraco-lumbar spinal cord. This was accomplished by immunohistochemical colocalization of noradrenergic fibers using dopamine-β-hydroxylase or NEα(1A) and NEα(2B) receptors with cells expressing the c-fos gene activity-dependent marker Fos. Experiments were performed on paralyzed, precollicular-postmamillary decerebrate cats, in which locomotion was induced by electrical stimulation of the mesencephalic locomotor region. The majority of Fos labeled neurons, especially abundant in laminae VII and VIII throughout the thoraco-lumbar (T13-L7) region of locomotor animals, showed close contacts with multiple noradrenergic boutons. A small percentage (10-40%) of Fos neurons in the T7-L7 segments showed colocalization with NEα(1A) receptors. In contrast, NEα(2B) receptor immunoreactivity was observed in 70-90% of Fos cells, with no obvious rostrocaudal gradient. In comparison with results obtained from our previous study on the same animals, a significantly smaller proportion of Fos labeled neurons were innervated by noradrenergic than serotonergic fibers, with significant differences observed for laminae VII and VIII in some segments. In lamina VII of the lumbar segments, the degree of monoaminergic receptor subtype/Fos colocalization examined statistically generally fell into the following order: NEα(2B) = 5-HT(2A) ≥ 5-HT(7) = 5-HT(1A) > NEα(1A). These results suggest that noradrenergic modulation of locomotion involves NEα(1A)/NEα(2B) receptors on noradrenergic-innervated locomotor-activated neurons within laminae VII and VIII of thoraco-lumbar segments. Further study of the functional role of these receptors in locomotion is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian R Noga
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami School of Medicine, 1095 NW 14th Terrace, Miami, FL 33136, USA.
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Houtepen LC, Peterse DP, Westphal KGC, Olivier B, Vinkers CH. The autonomic stress-induced hyperthermia response is not enhanced by several anxiogenic drugs. Physiol Behav 2010; 102:105-9. [PMID: 20828578 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2010.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2010] [Revised: 07/25/2010] [Accepted: 09/01/2010] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
While anxiety models are often based on locomotor activity responses, the stress-induced hyperthermia (SIH) paradigm uses the autonomic stress response by measuring body temperature. The effects of putative anxiogenic compounds in the SIH paradigm are inconclusive in mice and have not been examined in rats. Furthermore, it has been suggested that drug-induced effects on body temperature could be dependent on locomotor activity levels. Therefore, the effects of three anxiogenic substances, yohimbine (an α(2) receptor antagonist), mCPP (a 5HT(2C) receptor agonist) and FG-7142 (a GABA(A) receptor inverse agonist acting at the benzodiazepine site) on the stress-induced body temperature and locomotor activity response were studied in rats using novel cage stress. All anxiogenic compounds resulted in hypothermia. In contrast, FG-7142 and yohimbine increased locomotor activity levels, whereas mCPP reduced locomotor activity levels. The lack of an increased body temperature response of anxiogenic compounds indicates that the anxiogenic capacity of a drug does not necessarily yield increased autonomic stress responsivity. Moreover, the present study shows that a drug-induced decreased body temperature can be accompanied by increased locomotor activity, suggesting that both parameters represent independent parameters of the stress response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lotte C Houtepen
- Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Sorbonnelaan 16, 3584CA Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Mueller D, Olivera-Figueroa LA, Pine DS, Quirk GJ. The effects of yohimbine and amphetamine on fear expression and extinction in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2009; 204:599-606. [PMID: 19242678 PMCID: PMC2692542 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-009-1491-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2008] [Accepted: 02/05/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Psychostimulants, such as yohimbine and amphetamine, can enhance learning and memory. Extinction of conditioned fear involves new learning, so we asked whether psychostimulants could enhance this learning. Previous work suggests that yohimbine facilitates extinction, using freezing as a fear measure. However, psychostimulant-induced alterations in locomotion can confound freezing measurements. Furthermore, the effects of amphetamine on fear extinction have never been examined. OBJECTIVE We evaluated the effectiveness of yohimbine and amphetamine in enhancing fear extinction. In addition to freezing, we measured bar-press suppression, which is less sensitive to changes in locomotion. We asked: Do psychostimulants reduce fear during extinction training when drug is present? Does learning extinction with psychostimulants result in better extinction retention? MATERIALS AND METHODS Rats received fear conditioning on day 1 followed by partial extinction training on days 2 and 3. Yohimbine (1.0, 2.0, or 5.0 mg/kg, i.p.), amphetamine (1.0 mg/kg, i.p.), or vehicle were injected prior to extinction on day 2. RESULTS Yohimbine dose-dependently reduced freezing during extinction training on day 2, whereas bar-press suppression was reduced at the highest dose only. When tested drug-free, yohimbine-treated rats showed equivalent levels of freezing and suppression to controls. Amphetamine also decreased freezing during extinction, but did not decrease suppression. During the drug-free test, there was no difference between amphetamine-treated rats and controls in either measure. CONCLUSIONS Although yohimbine and amphetamine are capable of decreasing freezing, neither drug strengthened retention of fear extinction. Based on these rodent findings, psychostimulants may not be suitable adjuncts to extinction-based therapies for the treatment of anxiety disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devin Mueller
- Departments of Psychiatry and Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of Puerto Rico School of Medicine, P.O. Box 365067, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00936−5067
| | | | - Daniel S. Pine
- Section on Development and Affective Neuroscience, NIMH Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, MD, USA 20817−2670
| | - Gregory J. Quirk
- Departments of Psychiatry and Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of Puerto Rico School of Medicine, P.O. Box 365067, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00936−5067
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Delivet-Mongrain H, Leblond H, Rossignol S. Effects of Localized Intraspinal Injections of a Noradrenergic Blocker on Locomotion of High Decerebrate Cats. J Neurophysiol 2008; 100:907-21. [DOI: 10.1152/jn.90454.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous studies demonstrated that neuronal networks located in midlumbar segments (L3–L4) are critical for the expression of locomotion in cats following complete spinalization. In the present study the importance of several thoracolumbar segments (T8–L7) for the generation of spontaneous hindlimb locomotion in decerebrate cats was evaluated. Experiments were performed in high decerebrate cats ( n = 18) walking spontaneously. Yohimbine, an alpha2-noradrenergic antagonist, was microinjected intraspinally in various thoracolumbar segments. Locomotor performance was evaluated with kinematics and electromyographic (EMG) recordings before and after each injection. When and if spontaneous locomotion (SL) was abolished, skin or perineal stimuli (exteroceptive stimuli) were used to trigger locomotion (exteroceptive-induced locomotion [EL]). Yohimbine injections at L3 or L4 completely inhibited SL and EL. In contrast, injections at T8 did not interfere with SL or EL. Injections at T10, T11, T12, L5, L6, and L7 inhibited SL but EL could still be evoked. Injections at T13, L1, and L2 had similar effects except that the quality of locomotion evoked by exteroceptive stimulation declined. Combined injections at T13, L1, and L2 abolished SL and EL, in contrast to injections restricted to the same individual segments. Simultaneous injections at L5, L6, and L7 also abolished SL but EL could still be induced. These results suggest that noradrenergic mechanisms in L3–L4 segments are involved in the expression of locomotion in decerebrate cats, whereas antagonizing noradrenergic inputs in individual rostral or caudal segments may alter the expression and overall quality of the locomotor pattern without abolishing locomotion.
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