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Campbell DLM, Cohen-Barnhouse AM, Bursian SJ. Effects of simple cage enrichment and its removal on the behavior and welfare of American mink ( Neogale vison). J APPL ANIM WELF SCI 2024:1-16. [PMID: 38577826 DOI: 10.1080/10888705.2024.2337935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
Environmental enrichment may reduce stereotypies in fur-farmed mink. North American mink standards require manipulable enrichment objects within cages. However, mink can rapidly destroy objects inhibiting continuous enrichment presence, which may have negative welfare impacts. This experimental study determined the effects of removing simple cage manipulable enrichments (plastic chains and dumbbells), either short-term or longer-term, on the behavioral expression of welfare in fur-farmed mink. Locomotor stereotypies, normal activity, sub-types of inactivity related to boredom, and tail fur-chewing were recorded across four treatment groups with either (1) no enrichment, (2) continuous enrichment, (3) short (temporary), or (4) long-term enrichment removal. Contrary to predictions, locomotor stereotypies, and scrabbling were not reduced by the enrichments, nor affected by the enrichment removal. Observations at the beginning of the trial showed the non-enriched mink spent the least amount of time lying with their eyes open (i.e., the least bored). The lack of enrichment may have increased fur-chewing on the tail, but larger sample sizes would be needed for statistical confirmation. This research contributes to the literature on evaluating simple, practical enrichments for improving fur-farmed mink welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dana L M Campbell
- Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
- Agriculture and Food, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Armidale, NSW, Australia
| | | | - Steven J Bursian
- Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
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2
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Downey BC, Tucker CB. Providing long hay in a novel pipe feeder or a bucket reduces abnormal oral behaviors in milk-fed dairy calves. J Dairy Sci 2023; 106:1968-1985. [PMID: 36653289 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2022-22413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Many milk-fed dairy calves are not provided forage. In these settings, calves often perform abnormal repetitive behaviors (ARBs), including tongue rolling and nonnutritive oral manipulation (NNOM), which, based on their form, seem similar to movements used when processing feed. Feeding hay, typically presented as a short chop (≤5 cm) in a bucket, reduces ARBs. Our objective was to evaluate whether altering the presentation method of long hay (∼19 cm), by providing it in a bucket or a novel polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe feeder, could reduce ARBs. Holstein heifer calves were housed individually on sand and fed ad libitum starter grain and limited milk replacer (5.7-8.4 L/d step-up) via a bottle (Control, n = 9) or given access to mountaingrass hay in a bucket (Bucket, n = 9) or in a PVC pipe feeder (Pipe, n = 9). The 56 × 10.2 cm (length × diameter) PVC pipe feeder had 4 openings that were 6.35 cm wide, which required the calf to insert her tongue into the pipe and curl her tongue to extract hay. Treatments were applied from birth through 50 d of age, when step-down weaning began and TMR was provided to all calves. Calves were fully weaned at d 60. At wk 4 and 6, oral behaviors (eating, ruminating, drinking water, sucking milk, self-grooming, NNOM, tongue rolling, tongue flicking, and panting) were recorded by direct observation for 24 h using 1-0 sampling during 5-s intervals. Feeding long hay, regardless of presentation method, increased overall DMI, grain intake, and ADG compared with Control calves. Hay provision also increased rumination (25 vs. 15% of 24-h observations in Control) and eating time (5.5 vs. 2% in Control). Abnormal behaviors were seen in all calves. Hay provision reduced some of these, including NNOM (5 vs. 9% in Control). There was no difference in NNOM between calves fed hay in a pipe or bucket, even though Bucket calves consumed more hay (178 vs. 129 g/d in wk 6) and tended to spend more observations eating hay than Pipe calves (4.5 vs. 3%). Hay provision did not affect other behaviors: drinking water (0.5%), grooming (3%), or tongue flicking (3%). We also found evidence of other abnormal oral behaviors that have received less attention. Calves showed signs of polydipsia, and displayed excessive grooming, the latter indicated by overall duration, number of bouts per day, and duration of individual bouts (up to 25 min). Tongue rolling was expressed at low levels (up to 0.4% of intervals) but by 85% of calves. Feeding hay, both in a bucket and using novel methods, was not enough to counteract the welfare challenges associated with individual housing and limited ability to suck milk (<1% of time). Provision of long hay, regardless of presentation method, promotes rumination, improves performance (higher grain intake and ADG) and reduces at least some, but not all, of the considerable abnormal oral behaviors these calves performed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blair C Downey
- Center for Animal Welfare, Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis 95616; Animal Behavior Graduate Group, University of California, Davis 95616
| | - Cassandra B Tucker
- Center for Animal Welfare, Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis 95616.
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3
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Keller R, Costa T, Imperiale D, Bianco A, Rondini E, Hassiotis A, Bertelli MO. Stereotypies in the Autism Spectrum Disorder: Can We Rely on an Ethological Model? Brain Sci 2021; 11:762. [PMID: 34201177 PMCID: PMC8230333 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11060762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Stereotypic behaviour can be defined as a clear behavioural pattern where a specific function or target cannot be identified, although it delays on time. Nonetheless, repetitive and stereotypical behaviours play a key role in both animal and human behaviour. Similar behaviours are observed across species, in typical human developmental phases, and in some neuropsychiatric conditions, such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Intellectual Disability. This evidence led to the spread of animal models of repetitive behaviours to better understand the neurobiological mechanisms underlying these dysfunctional behaviours and to gain better insight into their role and origin within ASD and other disorders. This, in turn, could lead to new treatments of those disorders in humans. METHOD This paper maps the literature on repetitive behaviours in animal models of ASD, in order to improve understanding of stereotypies in persons with ASD in terms of characterization, pathophysiology, genomic and anatomical factors. RESULTS Literature mapping confirmed that phylogenic approach and animal models may help to improve understanding and differentiation of stereotypies in ASD. Some repetitive behaviours appear to be interconnected and mediated by common genomic and anatomical factors across species, mainly by alterations of basal ganglia circuitry. A new distinction between stereotypies and autotypies should be considered. CONCLUSIONS Phylogenic approach and studies on animal models may support clinical issues related to stereotypies in persons with ASD and provide new insights in classification, pathogenesis, and management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Keller
- Adult Autism Centre, Mental Health Department, ASL Città di Torino, 10138 Turin, Italy; (R.K.); (T.C.)
| | - Tatiana Costa
- Adult Autism Centre, Mental Health Department, ASL Città di Torino, 10138 Turin, Italy; (R.K.); (T.C.)
| | - Daniele Imperiale
- Neurology Unit, Maria Vittoria Hospital, ASL Città di Torino, 10144 Turin, Italy;
| | - Annamaria Bianco
- CREA (Research and Clinical Centre), San Sebastiano Foundation, Misericordia di Firenze, 50142 Florence, Italy; (A.B.); (E.R.)
| | - Elisa Rondini
- CREA (Research and Clinical Centre), San Sebastiano Foundation, Misericordia di Firenze, 50142 Florence, Italy; (A.B.); (E.R.)
| | - Angela Hassiotis
- Division of Psychiatry, University College London, London W1T 7NF, UK;
| | - Marco O. Bertelli
- CREA (Research and Clinical Centre), San Sebastiano Foundation, Misericordia di Firenze, 50142 Florence, Italy; (A.B.); (E.R.)
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Briefer Freymond S, Beuret S, Ruet A, Zuberbühler K, Bachmann I, Briefer E. Stereotypic behaviour in horses lowers stress but not spatial learning performance. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2020.105099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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5
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Nip E, Adcock A, Nazal B, MacLellan A, Niel L, Choleris E, Levison L, Mason G. Why are enriched mice nice? Investigating how environmental enrichment reduces agonism in female C57BL/6, DBA/2, and BALB/c mice. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2019.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Díez-León M, Kitchenham L, Duprey R, Bailey CDC, Choleris E, Lewis M, Mason G. Neurophysiological correlates of stereotypic behaviour in a model carnivore species. Behav Brain Res 2019; 373:112056. [PMID: 31288059 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.112056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Revised: 06/19/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Stereotypic behaviour (SB) is common in animals housed in farm, zoo or laboratory conditions, including captive Carnivora (e.g. wild ursids and felids). Neurobiological data on housing-induced SBs come from four species (macaques, two rodent species, and horses), and suggest basal ganglia (BG) dysfunction. We investigated whether similar patterns occur in Carnivora via a model, American mink, because their SB is distinctive in form and timing. We raised 32 males in non-enriched (NE) or enriched (E) cages for 2 years, and assessed two forms of SB: 1) Carnivora-typical locomotor-and-whole-body ('loco') SBs (e.g. pacing, weaving); 2) scrabbling with the forepaws. Neuronal activity was analysed via cytochrome oxidase (CO) staining of the dorsal striatum (caudate; putamen), globus pallidus (externus, GPe; internus, GPi), STN, and nucleus accumbens (NAc); and the GPe:GPi ratio (GPr) calculated to assess relative activation of direct and indirect pathways. NE mink stereotyped more, and had lower GPr CO-staining indicating relatively lower indirect pathway activation. However, no single BG area was affected by housing and nor did GPr values covary with SB. Independent of housing, elevated NAc CO-staining predicted more loco SB, while scrabbling, probably because it negatively correlated with loco SB, negatively covaried with NAc CO-staining in NE subjects. These results thus implicate the NAc in individual differences in mink SB. However, because they cannot explain why NE subjects showed more SB, they provide limited support for the BG dysfunction hypothesis for this species' housing-induced SB. More research is therefore needed to understand how barren housing causes SB in captive Carnivora.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Díez-León
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, UK.
| | - L Kitchenham
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, Canada
| | - R Duprey
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, USA
| | - C D C Bailey
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Guelph, Canada
| | - E Choleris
- Department of Psychology, University of Guelph, Canada
| | - M Lewis
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, USA
| | - G Mason
- Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, Canada
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Poirier C, Bateson M. Pacing stereotypies in laboratory rhesus macaques: Implications for animal welfare and the validity of neuroscientific findings. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2017; 83:508-515. [PMID: 28893555 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2017] [Revised: 09/07/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Stereotypic behaviours are commonly observed in captive animals and are usually interpreted as a sign of poor welfare. Stereotypies have also been linked with brain abnormalities. However, stereotypies are a heterogeneous class of behaviours and mounting evidence indicates that different stereotypies can have different causes, and can be linked to different affective states. As a consequence, the implications of a specific stereotypy in a specific species cannot be safely inferred from evidence on other stereotypies or species. Here we review what is known about pacing behaviour in laboratory rhesus macaques, a common stereotypy in this species. Our review highlights the current lack of understanding of the causal factors underlying pacing behaviour. According to current knowledge, the welfare of pacing macaques could be either better, worse or equivalent to that of non-pacing individuals. It is also unclear whether pacing results from brain abnormalities. Since rhesus macaques are widely used as a model of healthy humans in neuroscience research, determining if pacing behaviour reflects an abnormal brain and/or poor welfare is urgent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colline Poirier
- Institute of Neuroscience, Medical School, Newcastle University, UK.
| | - Melissa Bateson
- Institute of Neuroscience, Medical School, Newcastle University, UK
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8
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Towards a taxonomy of stereotypic behaviours in the American mink (Neovison vison) , a model Carnivore: Homogeneous or heterogeneous? Appl Anim Behav Sci 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2017.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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9
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Whitehouse CM, Curry-Pochy LS, Shafer R, Rudy J, Lewis MH. Reversal learning in C58 mice: Modeling higher order repetitive behavior. Behav Brain Res 2017. [PMID: 28624316 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Restricted, repetitive behaviors are diagnostic for autism and prevalent in other neurodevelopmental disorders. These behaviors cluster as repetitive sensory-motor behaviors and behaviors reflecting resistance to change. The C58 mouse strain is a promising model for these behaviors as it emits high rates of aberrant repetitive sensory-motor behaviors. The purpose of the present study was to extend characterization of the C58 model to resistance to change. This was done by comparing C58 to C57BL/6 mice on a reversal learning task under either a 100% or 80%/20% probabilistic reinforcement schedule. In addition, the effect of environmental enrichment on performance of this task was assessed as this rearing condition markedly reduces repetitive sensory-motor behavior in C58 mice. Little difference was observed between C58 and control mice under a 100% schedule of reinforcement. The 80%/20% probabilistic schedule of reinforcement generated substantial strain differences, however. Importantly, no strain difference was observed in acquisition, but C58 mice were markedly impaired in their ability to reverse their pattern of responding from the previously high density reinforcement side. Environmental enrichment did not impact acquisition under the probabilistic reinforcement schedule, but enriched C58 mice performed significantly better than standard housed C58 mice in reversal learning. Thus, C58 mice exhibit behaviors that reflect both repetitive sensory motor behaviors as well as behavior that reflects resistance to change. Moreover, both clusters of repetitive behavior were attenuated by environmental enrichment. Such findings, along with the reported social deficits in C58 mice, increase the translational value of this mouse model to autism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina M Whitehouse
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, McKnight Brain Institute, 1149 Newell Drive, L4-100, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Lisa S Curry-Pochy
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida,945 Center Drive, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
| | - Robin Shafer
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, McKnight Brain Institute, 1149 Newell Drive, L4-100, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Joseph Rudy
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, McKnight Brain Institute, 1149 Newell Drive, L4-100, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Mark H Lewis
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, McKnight Brain Institute, 1149 Newell Drive, L4-100, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA; Department of Psychology, University of Florida,945 Center Drive, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
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10
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Novak J, Bailoo JD, Melotti L, Würbel H. Effect of Cage-Induced Stereotypies on Measures of Affective State and Recurrent Perseveration in CD-1 and C57BL/6 Mice. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0153203. [PMID: 27145080 PMCID: PMC4856387 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0153203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2015] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Stereotypies are abnormal repetitive behaviour patterns that are highly prevalent in laboratory mice and are thought to reflect impaired welfare. Thus, they are associated with impaired behavioural inhibition and may also reflect negative affective states. However, in mice the relationship between stereotypies and behavioural inhibition is inconclusive, and reliable measures of affective valence are lacking. Here we used an exploration based task to assess cognitive bias as a measure of affective valence and a two-choice guessing task to assess recurrent perseveration as a measure of impaired behavioural inhibition to test mice with different forms and expression levels of stereotypic behaviour. We trained 44 CD-1 and 40 C57BL/6 female mice to discriminate between positively and negatively cued arms in a radial maze and tested their responses to previously inaccessible ambiguous arms. In CD-1 mice (i) mice with higher stereotypy levels displayed a negative cognitive bias and this was influenced by the form of stereotypy performed, (ii) negative cognitive bias was evident in back-flipping mice, and (iii) no such effect was found in mice displaying bar-mouthing or cage-top twirling. In C57BL/6 mice neither route-tracing nor bar-mouthing was associated with cognitive bias, indicating that in this strain these stereotypies may not reflect negative affective states. Conversely, while we found no relation of stereotypy to recurrent perseveration in CD-1 mice, C57BL/6 mice with higher levels of route-tracing, but not bar-mouthing, made more repetitive responses in the guessing task. Our findings confirm previous research indicating that the implications of stereotypies for animal welfare may strongly depend on the species and strain of animal as well as on the form and expression level of the stereotypy. Furthermore, they indicate that variation in stereotypic behaviour may represent an important source of variation in many animal experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janja Novak
- Division of Animal Welfare, VPH Institute, University of Bern, Länggassstrasse 120, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
| | - Jeremy D. Bailoo
- Division of Animal Welfare, VPH Institute, University of Bern, Länggassstrasse 120, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Luca Melotti
- Division of Animal Welfare, VPH Institute, University of Bern, Länggassstrasse 120, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Hanno Würbel
- Division of Animal Welfare, VPH Institute, University of Bern, Länggassstrasse 120, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
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Díez-León M, Bursian S, Galicia D, Napolitano A, Palme R, Mason G. Environmentally enriching American mink (Neovison vison) increases lymphoid organ weight and skeletal symmetry, and reveals differences between two sub-types of stereotypic behaviour. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2015.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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12
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Campbell DL, Link JE, Lester-Saenz AH, Bursian SJ. Feed intake, growth, and behavioral assessment of mink fed a clam-based diet. CANADIAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.1139/cjas-2014-0171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to assess the acceptance and safety of two species of food-grade clams, ocean quahog (Arctica islandica) and Atlantic surf clam (Spisula solidissima), for consumption by fur-farmed American mink (Neovison vison). These clams contained thiaminase that can lead to weight loss, paralysis, and death. Across 19 wk, 39 black, adult female mink divided into three groups were fed a standard chicken-based control diet, 10% clam diet, or 20% clam diet and assessed for feed consumption rates, body weights, locomotor stereotypic behavior, overall activity levels, and ability to complete a novel tunnel climbing task. The 20% clam group consumed significantly less metabolizable energy compared with the control group, but there was no significant difference in weight gain between groups. There were some inconsistent group differences in stereotypy and overall activity with all groups showing significant behavioral differences across study weeks; possibly related to ambient weather and photoperiod. There were no significant group differences in their ability to complete the tunnel task. Based on our results, no negative effect of clam consumption was observed in adult female mink, but further studies are needed to determine clam safety to both male and female mink from all life stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dana L.M. Campbell
- Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Jane E. Link
- Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Amber H. Lester-Saenz
- Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Steven J. Bursian
- Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
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Díez-León M, Mason G. Effects of environmental enrichment and stereotypic behavior on maternal behavior and infant viability in a model carnivore, the American mink (Neovison vison). Zoo Biol 2015; 35:19-28. [DOI: 10.1002/zoo.21249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2014] [Revised: 09/07/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- María Díez-León
- Department of Animal Biosciences; University of Guelph; Ontario Canada
| | - Georgia Mason
- Department of Animal Biosciences; University of Guelph; Ontario Canada
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Cless IT, Voss-Hoynes HA, Ritzmann RE, Lukas KE. Defining pacing quantitatively: A comparison of gait characteristics between pacing and non-repetitive locomotion in zoo-housed polar bears. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2015.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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15
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An Exploration Based Cognitive Bias Test for Mice: Effects of Handling Method and Stereotypic Behaviour. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0130718. [PMID: 26154309 PMCID: PMC4496074 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0130718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2014] [Accepted: 05/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Behavioural tests to assess affective states are widely used in human research and have recently been extended to animals. These tests assume that affective state influences cognitive processing, and that animals in a negative affective state interpret ambiguous information as expecting a negative outcome (displaying a negative cognitive bias). Most of these tests however, require long discrimination training. The aim of the study was to validate an exploration based cognitive bias test, using two different handling methods, as previous studies have shown that standard tail handling of mice increases physiological and behavioural measures of anxiety compared to cupped handling. Therefore, we hypothesised that tail handled mice would display a negative cognitive bias. We handled 28 female CD-1 mice for 16 weeks using either tail handling or cupped handling. The mice were then trained in an eight arm radial maze, where two adjacent arms predicted a positive outcome (darkness and food), while the two opposite arms predicted a negative outcome (no food, white noise and light). After six days of training, the mice were also given access to the four previously unavailable intermediate ambiguous arms of the radial maze and tested for cognitive bias. We were unable to validate this test, as mice from both handling groups displayed a similar pattern of exploration. Furthermore, we examined whether maze exploration is affected by the expression of stereotypic behaviour in the home cage. Mice with higher levels of stereotypic behaviour spent more time in positive arms and avoided ambiguous arms, displaying a negative cognitive bias. While this test needs further validation, our results indicate that it may allow the assessment of affective state in mice with minimal training—a major confound in current cognitive bias paradigms.
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16
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Benefits of a ball and chain: simple environmental enrichments improve welfare and reproductive success in farmed American mink (Neovison vison). PLoS One 2014; 9:e110589. [PMID: 25386726 PMCID: PMC4227648 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0110589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2014] [Accepted: 09/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Can simple enrichments enhance caged mink welfare? Pilot data from 756 sub-adults spanning three colour-types (strains) identified potentially practical enrichments, and suggested beneficial effects on temperament and fur-chewing. Our main experiment started with 2032 Black mink on three farms: from each of 508 families, one juvenile male-female pair was enriched (E) with two balls and a hanging plastic chain or length of hose, while a second pair was left as a non-enriched (NE) control. At 8 months, more than half the subjects were killed for pelts, and 302 new females were recruited (half enriched: ‘late E’). Several signs of improved welfare or productivity emerged. Access to enrichment increased play in juveniles. E mink were calmer (less aggressive in temperament tests; quieter when handled; less fearful, if male), and less likely to fur-chew, although other stereotypic behaviours were not reduced. On one farm, E females had lower cortisol (inferred from faecal metabolites). E males tended to copulate for longer. E females also weaned more offspring: about 10% more juveniles per E female, primarily caused by reduced rates of barrenness (‘late E’ females also giving birth to bigger litters on one farm), effects that our data cautiously suggest were partly mediated by reduced inactivity and changes in temperament. Pelt quality seemed unaffected, but E animals had cleaner cages. In a subsidiary side-study using 368 mink of a second colour-type (‘Demis’), similar temperament effects emerged, and while E did not reduce fur-chewing or improve reproductive success in this colour-type, E animals were judged to have better pelts. Overall, simple enrichments were thus beneficial. These findings should encourage welfare improvements on fur farms (which house 60-70 million mink p.a.) and in breeding centres where endangered mustelids (e.g. black-footed ferrets) often reproduce poorly. They should also stimulate future research into more effective practical enrichments.
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McBride SD, Parker MO. The disrupted basal ganglia and behavioural control: an integrative cross-domain perspective of spontaneous stereotypy. Behav Brain Res 2014; 276:45-58. [PMID: 25052167 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.05.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2014] [Revised: 05/16/2014] [Accepted: 05/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Spontaneous stereotypic behaviour (SB) is common in many captive animal species, as well as in humans with some severe psychiatric disorders, and is often cited as being related to general basal ganglia dysfunction. Despite this assertion, there is little in the literature examining SB specifically in terms of the basal ganglia mechanics. In this review, we attempt to fill this gap by offering an integrative, cross-domain perspective of SB by linking what we currently understand about the SB phenotype with the ever-growing literature on the anatomy and functionality of the basal ganglia. After outlining current models of SB from different theoretical perspectives, we offer a broad but detailed overview of normally functioning basal ganglia mechanics, and attempt to link this with current neurophysiological evidence related to spontaneous SB. Based on this we present an empirically derived theoretical framework, which proposes that SB is the result of a dysfunctional action selection system that may reflect dysregulation of excitatory (direct) and inhibitory (indirect and hyperdirect) pathways as well as alterations in mechanisms of behavioural switching. This approach also suggests behaviours that specifically become stereotypic may reflect inbuilt low selection threshold behavioural sequences associated with early development and the species-specific ethogram or, low threshold behavioural sequences that are the result of stress-induced dopamine exposure at the time of performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian D McBride
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Matthew O Parker
- School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK.
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Association between increased behavioral persistence and stereotypy in the pet dog. Behav Processes 2014; 106:77-81. [PMID: 24814910 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2014.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2013] [Revised: 04/08/2014] [Accepted: 04/21/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether dogs that exhibit stereotypy also show higher behavioral persistence in an extinction-learning task. Thirteen pet dogs with stereotypy and 13 breed-matched control dogs were assessed on a resistance to extinction test. Each dog was trained for 40 trials using a food reinforcer to nose-touch the experimenter's hand on a continuous reinforcement schedule. After acquisition, the dogs entered an extinction phase, during which food was no longer delivered. The numbers of nose-touches as well as inter-response times during this phase were recorded. A linear regression found that stereotypy status (t=-2.46, P=.027) and breed type (t=2.44, P=.023) were significant predictors of the number of responses in extinction. Dogs with stereotypy responded more in extinction than control dogs. The mean number of responses was 13.4 (SD=14.7) in the control group and 26.0 (SD=15.3) in the stereotypy group. These results suggest a link between previous laboratory and zoo animal findings on the neurophysiology of stereotypy and the pet dog population. They also have implications for the use of extinction procedures to reduce stereotypic behaviors in pet dogs, as these dogs show enhanced resistance to extinction.
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Gaillard C, Meagher RK, von Keyserlingk MAG, Weary DM. Social housing improves dairy calves' performance in two cognitive tests. PLoS One 2014; 9:e90205. [PMID: 24587281 PMCID: PMC3935992 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0090205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2013] [Accepted: 01/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Early social housing is known to benefit cognitive development in laboratory animals. Pre-weaned dairy calves are typically separated from their dam immediately after birth and housed alone, but no work to date has addressed the effect of individual housing on cognitive performance of these animals. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of individual versus social housing on two measures of cognitive performance: reversal learning and novel object recognition. Holstein calves were either housed individually in a standard calf pen (n = 8) or kept in pairs using a double pen (n = 10). Calves were tested twice daily in a Y-maze starting at 3 weeks of age. Calves were initially trained to discriminate two colours (black and white) until they reached a learning criterion of 80% correct over three consecutive sessions. Training stimuli were then reversed (i.e. the previously rewarded colour was now unrewarded, and vice-versa). Calves from the two treatments showed similar rates of learning in the initial discrimination task, but the individually housed calves showed poorer performance in the reversal task. At 7 weeks of age, calves were tested for their response to a novel object in eight tests over a two-day period. Pair-housed calves showed declining exploration with repeated testing but individually reared calves did not. The results of these experiments provide the first direct evidence that individual housing impairs cognitive performance in dairy calves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Gaillard
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Rebecca K. Meagher
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Marina A. G. von Keyserlingk
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Daniel M. Weary
- Animal Welfare Program, Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- * E-mail:
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Díez-León M, Bowman J, Bursian S, Filion H, Galicia D, Kanefsky J, Napolitano A, Palme R, Schulte-Hostedde A, Scribner K, Mason G. Environmentally enriched male mink gain more copulations than stereotypic, barren-reared competitors. PLoS One 2013; 8:e80494. [PMID: 24282547 PMCID: PMC3839975 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0080494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2013] [Accepted: 09/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Wild carnivores in zoos, conservation breeding centres, and farms commonly live in relatively small, unstimulating enclosures. Under these captive conditions, in a range of species including giant pandas, black-footed ferrets, and European mink, male reproductive abilities are often poor. Such problems have long been hypothesized to be caused by these animals' housing conditions. We show for the first time that rearing under welfare-improving (i.e., highly valued and stress-reducing) environmental enrichments enhances male carnivores' copulatory performance: in mate choice competitions, enriched male American mink (Neovison vison) mated more often than non-enriched males. We screened for several potential mediators of this effect. First was physiological stress and its impact on reproductive physiology; second, stress-mediated changes in morphology and variables related to immunocompetence that could influence male attractiveness; and third, behavioural changes likely to affect social competence, particularly autistic-like excessive routine and repetition ('perseveration') as is reflected in the stereotypies common in captive animals. Consistent with physiological stress, excreted steroid metabolites revealed that non-enriched males had higher cortisol levels and lower androgen levels than enriched conspecifics. Their os penises (bacula) also tended to be less developed. Consistent with reduced attractiveness, non-enriched males were lighter, with comparatively small spleens and a trend to greater fluctuating asymmetry. Consistent with impaired social competence, non-enriched males performed more stereotypic behaviour (e.g., pacing) in their home cages. Of all these effects, the only significant predictor of copulation number was stereotypy (a trend suggesting that low bodyweights may also be influential): highly stereotypic males gained the fewest copulations. The neurophysiological changes underlying stereotypy thus handicap males sexually. We hypothesise that such males are abnormally perseverative when interacting with females. Investigating similar problems in other taxa would be worthwhile, since many vertebrates, wild and domestic, live in conditions that cause stereotypic behaviour and/or impair neurological development.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Díez-León
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jeff Bowman
- Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Wildlife Research and Development Section, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - Steve Bursian
- Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Hélène Filion
- Department of Biology Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada
| | - David Galicia
- Department of Zoology and Ecology, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Jeannette Kanefsky
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Angelo Napolitano
- Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Rupert Palme
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Kim Scribner
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Georgia Mason
- Department of Animal and Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail:
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Buob M, Meagher R, Dawson L, Palme R, Haley D, Mason G. Providing ‘get-away bunks’ and other enrichments to primiparous adult female mink improves their reproductive productivity. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2013.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Dawson L, Buob M, Haley D, Miller S, Stryker J, Quinton M, Mason G. Providing elevated ‘getaway bunks’ to nursing mink dams improves their health and welfare. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2013.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Meagher RK, Campbell DL, Dallaire JA, Díez-León M, Palme R, Mason GJ. Sleeping tight or hiding in fright? The welfare implications of different subtypes of inactivity in mink. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2013.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Dallaire JA, Meagher RK, Mason GJ. Individual differences in stereotypic behaviour predict individual differences in the nature and degree of enrichment use in caged American mink. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2012.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Meagher RK, Mason GJ. Environmental enrichment reduces signs of boredom in caged mink. PLoS One 2012; 7:e49180. [PMID: 23155462 PMCID: PMC3498363 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0049180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2012] [Accepted: 10/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals housed in impoverished cages are often labelled ‘bored’. They have also been called ‘apathetic’ or ‘depressed’, particularly when profoundly inactive. However, these terms are rarely operationally defined and validated. As a negative state caused by under-stimulation, boredom should increase interest in stimuli of all kinds. Apathy (lack of interest), by contrast, should manifest as decreased interest in all stimuli, while anhedonia (loss of pleasure, a depressive symptom) should specifically decrease interest in normally rewarding stimuli. We tested the hypotheses that mink, a model carnivore, experience more boredom, depression-like apathy, or anhedonia in non-enriched (NE) cages than in complex, enriched (E) cages. We exposed 29 subjects (13 E, 16 NE) to ten stimuli categorized a priori as aversive (e.g. air puffs), rewarding (e.g. evoking chasing) or ambiguous/neutral (e.g. candles). Interest in stimuli was assessed via latencies to contact, contact durations, and durations oriented to stimuli. NE mink contacted all stimuli faster (P = 0.003) than E mink, and spent longer oriented to/in contact with them, albeit only significantly so for ambiguous ones (treatment*type P<0.013). With stimulus category removed from statistical models, interest in all stimuli was consistently higher among NE mink (P<0.0001 for all measures). NE mink also consumed more food rewards (P = 0.037). Finally, we investigated whether lying down while awake and stereotypic behaviour (both increased by NE housing) predicted these responses. Lying awake positively co-varied with certain measures of increased exploration. In contrast, stereotypic ‘scrabbling’ or locomotion (e.g. pacing) did not. Overall, NE mink showed no evidence of apathy or depression, but instead a heightened investigation of diverse stimuli consistent with boredom. This state was potentially indicated by spending much time lying still but awake (although this result requires replication). Boredom can thus be operationalized and assessed empirically in non-human animals. It can also be reduced by environmental enrichment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca K Meagher
- Animal and Poultry Science Department, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
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Environmentally enriched rearing environments reduce repetitive perseveration in caged mink, but increase spontaneous alternation. Behav Brain Res 2012; 239:177-87. [PMID: 23159704 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2012.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2012] [Revised: 11/05/2012] [Accepted: 11/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Studies spanning 15 species (including American mink, Neovison vison) demonstrate that within similarly-housed populations, individuals displaying high levels of stereotypic behaviour (SB) typically show perseverative responding (e.g. during set-shifting, or reversal/extinction learning). Similar correlations in autism and schizophrenia suggest this indicates captivity-induced cortico-striatal circuit dysfunction. However, this pattern does not prove developmental impairment: SB, perseveration and their inter-correlations also occur in normal humans. We therefore differentially-reared enriched versus non-enriched mink to investigate whether treatments that exacerbate SB correspondingly increase perseveration (Study 1). Enriched-rearing did reduce SB and perseverative response repetition (in two-choice guessing tasks), while increasing spontaneous alternation: a strategy yielding more rewards, and suggesting enhanced hippocampal development. This complements previous research demonstrating cortical/hippocampal impairments and reduced behavioural flexibility in non-enriched animals, with implications for research animals and wild animals captive-raised for reintroduction into nature. Consistent with previous data, highly stereotypic subjects repeated guessing task responses most rapidly, suggesting disinhibition during repetition. However, unexpectedly, SB and perseveration did not co-vary across individuals. We therefore suggest that behavioural changes manifest as increased perseveration are important but do not fully explain captive animals' SBs, possible reasons including the contributory role of differential motivations for underlying source behaviours. Re-analyses of old data (Study 2) confirmed that spontaneous alternation is profitable; and demonstrated that the precise methods used for quantifying perseveration and SB can modify the strength of apparent relationships between them, as can statistically controlling for feeding motivation: as predicted, partialling out motivational effects increased the variance in SB predicted by perseveration.
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Gross AN, Richter SH, Engel AKJ, Würbel H. Cage-induced stereotypies, perseveration and the effects of environmental enrichment in laboratory mice. Behav Brain Res 2012; 234:61-8. [PMID: 22721674 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2012.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2011] [Revised: 06/04/2012] [Accepted: 06/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
When kept in barren and restrictive cages, animals frequently develop stereotypic behaviour patterns that are characterized by high repetition rates, conspicuous invariance and an apparent lack of function. Although millions of animals are affected, the underlying causes and mechanisms are still unclear. Growing evidence suggests that cage-induced stereotypies may reflect pathological dysfunction within basal ganglia circuitry expressed by perseverative behaviour. In order to assess whether variation in stereotypy performance and variation in perseverative behaviour may have a common cause in ICR CD-1 mice, we assessed the effects of environmental enrichment on both phenomena. We raised 48 female ICR CD-1 mice in standard or enriched cages from three weeks to either 6 or 11 months of age and measured stereotypy level in the home cage and perseveration on an extinction task. We further examined whether enriched rearing conditions (early enrichment) protect mice from the developing stereotypies later in life and whether stereotypies developed in barren cages would persist in an enriched environment (late enrichment) by transferring standard mice to enriched cages and vice versa for 14 weeks after completion of the extinction task. We found no evidence for a causal relation between stereotypy and perseveration in mice. However, transfer to enriched cages reduced stereotypy levels significantly both at 6 and 11 months of age indicating that stereotypies had not become established yet. Finally, we found that removing enrichments at both ages did not induce higher stereotypy levels, thereby confirming earlier reports of a neuroprotective effect of early enrichment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra N Gross
- Division of Animal Welfare and Ethology, University of Giessen, Frankfurter Strasse 104, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
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Meagher RK, Bechard A, Mason GJ. Mink with Divergent Activity Levels have Divergent Reproductive Strategies. Ethology 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0310.2012.02044.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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