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Lambert CT, Guillette LM. The impact of environmental and social factors on learning abilities: a meta-analysis. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 96:2871-2889. [PMID: 34342125 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Since the 1950s, researchers have examined how differences in the social and asocial environment affect learning in rats, mice, and, more recently, a variety of other species. Despite this large body of research, little has been done to synthesize these findings and to examine if social and asocial environmental factors have consistent effects on cognitive abilities, and if so, what aspects of these factors have greater or lesser impact. Here, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis examining how different external environmental features, including the social environment, impact learning (both speed of acquisition and performance). Using 531 mean-differences from 176 published articles across 27 species (with studies on rats and mice being most prominent) we conducted phylogenetically corrected mixed-effects models that reveal: (i) an average absolute effect size |d| = 0.55 and directional effect size d = 0.34; (ii) interventions manipulating the asocial environment result in larger effects than social interventions alone; and (iii) the length of the intervention is a significant predictor of effect size, with longer interventions resulting in larger effects. Additionally, much of the variation in effect size remained unexplained, possibly suggesting that species differ widely in how they are affected by environmental interventions due to varying ecological and evolutionary histories. Overall our results suggest that social and asocial environmental factors do significantly affect learning, but these effects are highly variable and perhaps not always as predicted. Most notably, the type (social or asocial) and length of interventions are important in determining the strength of the effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Connor T Lambert
- Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, P217 Biological Sciences Building, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Lauren M Guillette
- Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, P217 Biological Sciences Building, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2R3, Canada
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Sá Couto‐Pereira N, Ferreira CF, Lampert C, Arcego DM, Toniazzo AP, Bernardi JR, Silva DC, Von Poser Toigo E, Diehl LA, Krolow R, Silveira PP, Dalmaz C. Neonatal interventions differently affect maternal care quality and have sexually dimorphic developmental effects on corticosterone secretion. Int J Dev Neurosci 2016; 55:72-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2016.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Revised: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 10/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Natividade Sá Couto‐Pereira
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Departamento de BioquímicaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)Porto AlegreRSBrazil
| | - Charles Francisco Ferreira
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: NeurociênciasUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)Porto AlegreRSBrazil
- Núcleo de Estudos da Saúde da Criança e do Adolescente, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA)Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)Porto AlegreRSBrazil
| | - Carine Lampert
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Departamento de BioquímicaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)Porto AlegreRSBrazil
| | - Danusa Mar Arcego
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Departamento de BioquímicaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)Porto AlegreRSBrazil
| | - Ana Paula Toniazzo
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Departamento de BioquímicaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)Porto AlegreRSBrazil
| | - Juliana Rombaldi Bernardi
- Núcleo de Estudos da Saúde da Criança e do Adolescente, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA)Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)Porto AlegreRSBrazil
| | - Diego Carrilho Silva
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Departamento de BioquímicaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)Porto AlegreRSBrazil
| | - Eduardo Von Poser Toigo
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Departamento de BioquímicaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)Porto AlegreRSBrazil
| | - Luisa Amalia Diehl
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Departamento de BioquímicaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)Porto AlegreRSBrazil
| | - Rachel Krolow
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Departamento de BioquímicaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)Porto AlegreRSBrazil
| | - Patrícia Pelufo Silveira
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: NeurociênciasUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)Porto AlegreRSBrazil
- Núcleo de Estudos da Saúde da Criança e do Adolescente, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA)Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)Porto AlegreRSBrazil
| | - Carla Dalmaz
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Departamento de BioquímicaUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)Porto AlegreRSBrazil
- Programa de Pós‐Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: NeurociênciasUniversidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)Porto AlegreRSBrazil
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Pillay N, Rimbach R, Rymer T. Pre- and postnatal dietary protein deficiency influences anxiety, memory and social behaviour in the African striped mouse Rhabdomys dilectus chakae. Physiol Behav 2016; 161:38-46. [PMID: 27080079 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Revised: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 04/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Dietary protein deficiency influences the behavioural phenotypes of mammals. We studied whether protein deficiency during gestation and/or post-weaning heightened anxiety, reduced memory recall and influenced competitive ability in the African striped mouse Rhabdomys dilectus chakae. Mice were subjected to five protein diet treatments, which they received continuously, or were raised on one diet to weaning and switched to an alternate diet post-weaning (Day 16): 1) HP-HP: high protein (24%); first letter pair indicates maternal diet and the second pair indicates offspring diet post-weaning; 2) BP-BP: baseline protein (19%); 3) LP-LP: low protein (10%); 4) HP-LP: switched from high to low protein diet; and 5) LP-HP: switched from low protein to high protein diet. From Day 70, when mice were sexually mature, 20 individuals (10 males, 10 females) per treatment were subjected to three successive experiments, in which we tested their anxiety responses in: 1) an open field arena (time spent in the centre of the open field); 2) novel object recognition (time spent exploring a novel object); and 3) social interactions (excluding BP-BP) in age-matched same-sex dyadic encounters (aggressive, amicable and avoidance behaviours). LP-LP and LP-HP treatment mice spent the least amount of time in the centre of the open field, did not demonstrate object preference compared to the other treatments, and were the most aggressive in dyadic encounters. Our study shows that the systemic effects of protein-deficient diets during early life shapes the behavioural phenotype in R. d. chakae, possibly through early organisation of neuro-biological pathways or competition among littermates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neville Pillay
- School of Animal, Plant & Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
| | - Rebecca Rimbach
- School of Animal, Plant & Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
| | - Tasmin Rymer
- School of Animal, Plant & Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa; College of Marine and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University, P. O. Box 6811, Cairns, Queensland 4870, Australia; Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Sciences, James Cook University, P. O. Box 6811, Cairns, Queensland 4870, Australia.
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Pillay N, Rymer TL. Alloparenting enhances the emotional, social and cognitive performance of female African striped mice, Rhabdomys pumilio. Anim Behav 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Tang AC, Reeb-Sutherland BC, Romeo RD, McEwen BS. On the causes of early life experience effects: evaluating the role of mom. Front Neuroendocrinol 2014; 35:245-51. [PMID: 24246856 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2013.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2013] [Revised: 10/24/2013] [Accepted: 11/07/2013] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Early life experiences are thought to have long-lasting effects on cognitive, emotional, and social function during adulthood. Changes in neuroendocrine function, particularly the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, contribute to these systems-level behavioral effects. In searching for causal mechanisms underlying these early experience effects, pioneering research has demonstrated an important role for maternal care in offspring development, and this has led to two persistent ideas that permeate current research and thinking: first, environmental impact on the developing infant is mediated through maternal care behavior; second, the more care that a mother provides, the better off her offspring. While a good beginning, the reality is likely more complex. In this review, we critically examine these ideas and propose a computationally-motivated theoretical framework, and within this framework, we consider evidence supporting a hypothesis of maternal modulation. These findings may inform policy decisions in the context of child health and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akaysha C Tang
- Cognitive Neuroscience Program, BCS/SBE, National Science Foundation, Arlington, VA 22230, United States; Department of Psychology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, United States; Department of Neurosciences, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, United States.
| | - Bethany C Reeb-Sutherland
- Department of Psychology, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, United States; Center for Children and Families, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, United States
| | - Russell D Romeo
- Neuroscience and Behavior Program, Department of Psychology, Barnard College of Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, United States
| | - Bruce S McEwen
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, United States
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Early stress evokes temporally distinct consequences on the hippocampal transcriptome, anxiety and cognitive behaviour. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2014; 17:289-301. [PMID: 24025219 DOI: 10.1017/s1461145713001004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The early stress of maternal separation (ES) exerts long-lasting effects on cognition and anxiety. Recent evidence indicates enhanced hippocampus-dependent spatial learning in young adult ES animals, which shifts towards a decline in long-term memory in middle-aged life. Further, we find that ES animals exhibit enhanced anxiety in young adulthood that does not persist into middle-aged life. Here, we demonstrate unique, predominantly non-overlapping, hippocampal transcriptomes in young adult and middle-aged ES animals that accompany the temporally-specific behavioural consequences. Strikingly, the extent of gene dysregulation in middle-aged ES animals was substantially higher than in young adulthood. Functional analysis revealed distinct biological processes enriched at the two ages, highlighting the temporal shift in ES-evoked gene regulation. Our results suggest that ES history interacts with aging to exacerbate age-associated transcriptional changes and cognitive decline. qPCR profiling of histone deacetylases (Hdacs) and histone methyltransferases (HMTs) revealed an age-dependent, opposing regulation with decreased expression noted in young adult ES animals (Hdac 2, 7, 8, 9 and Suv39h1) and enhanced levels in middle-aged life (Hdac 2, 6, 8 and Suv39h1). While altered expression of histone modifying enzymes did not translate into global histone acetylation or methylation changes, we noted differential enrichment of histone acetylation and methylation modifications at the promoters of multiple genes regulated in the hippocampi of young adult and middle-aged ES animals. Our results highlight the differential molecular and behavioural consequences of ES across a life-span, and suggest a possible role for epigenetic mechanisms in contributing to the temporally-specific transcriptional changes following ES.
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Kosten TA, Kim JJ, Lee HJ. Early life manipulations alter learning and memory in rats. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2012; 36:1985-2006. [PMID: 22819985 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2012] [Revised: 07/04/2012] [Accepted: 07/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Much research shows that early life manipulations have enduring behavioral, neural, and hormonal effects. However, findings of learning and memory performance vary widely across studies. We reviewed studies in which pre-weaning rat pups were exposed to stressors and tested on learning and memory tasks in adulthood. Tasks were classified as aversive conditioning, inhibitory learning, or spatial/relational memory. Variables of duration, type, and timing of neonatal manipulation and sex and strain of animals were examined to determine if any predict enhanced or impaired performance. Brief separations enhanced and prolonged separations impaired performance on spatial/relational tasks. Performance was impaired in aversive conditioning and enhanced in inhibitory learning tasks regardless of manipulation duration. Opposing effects on performance for spatial/relational memory also depended upon timing of manipulation. Enhanced performance was likely if the manipulation occurred during postnatal week 3 but performance was impaired if it was confined to the first two postnatal weeks. Thus, the relationship between early life experiences and adulthood learning and memory performance is multifaceted and decidedly task-dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Therese A Kosten
- Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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Tang AC, Reeb-Sutherland BC, Romeo RD, McEwen BS. Reducing behavioral inhibition to novelty via systematic neonatal novelty exposure: the influence of maternal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal regulation. Biol Psychiatry 2012; 72:150-6. [PMID: 22521147 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2012] [Revised: 02/28/2012] [Accepted: 03/18/2012] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Behavioral inhibition (BI) to novelty is thought to be a stable temperament type that appears early in life and is a major risk factor for anxiety disorders. In the rat, habituation of such inhibition can be facilitated via neonatal novelty exposure (NNE), thus reducing BI to novelty. Here, we tested the hypothesis that this early intervention effect is modulated by the context of maternal self-stress regulation. METHODS The NNE was carried out during postnatal days 1-21, in which one half of each litter was exposed to a relatively novel nonhome environment for 3-min daily while the remaining one half stayed in the home cage. After weaning, BI to novelty was assessed in an open field with a measure of disinhibition defined as a greater increase in exploration across two brief trials. Maternal context was characterized by trait measures of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis reactivity, including basal and stress-evoked corticosterone (CORT) responses. RESULTS Family-to-family variations in the NNE effect were associated with variations in maternal HPA function-a low-basal CORT and high-evoked CORT response profile constituting the context for a novelty-induced facilitation of disinhibition (i.e., a greater increase in exploratory activity over repeated trials) and an opposite HPA profile constituting the context for a novelty-induced reduction of disinhibition. CONCLUSIONS This result is consistent with the hypothesis that maternal self-stress regulation modulates the effect of early life intervention on BI to novelty and suggests that effective interventions should include strategies to help mothers improve their self-stress regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akaysha C Tang
- Department of Psychology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA.
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Reeb-Sutherland BC, Tang AC. Functional specificity in the modulation of novelty exposure effects by reliability of maternal care. Behav Brain Res 2011; 226:345-50. [PMID: 21911009 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.08.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2011] [Revised: 08/28/2011] [Accepted: 08/31/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Using the within-litter neonatal novelty exposure procedure, we manipulated newborn pups' environmental novelty independently from natural variations in maternal care. To better translate animal models to human development studies, we introduce a measure for maternal care reliability. We examined how this reliability modulates novelty-exposure-induced effects on offspring cognitive, social, and emotional development and show that maternal care reliability acts in a function-specific manner. We discuss our results within the framework of a maternal reliability-based modulation model.
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