Quantitative measurement of changes in adhesion force involving focal adhesion kinase during cell attachment, spread, and migration

Focal adhesion dynamics in cellular function and disease

Acting as a bridge between the cytoskeleton of the cell and the extra cellular matrix (ECM), the cell-ECM adhesions with integrins at their core, play a major role in cell signalling to direct mechanotransduction, cell migration, cell cycle progression, proliferation, differentiation, growth and repair. Biochemically, these adhesions are composed of diverse, yet an organised group of structural proteins, receptors, adaptors, various enzymes including protein kinases, phosphatases, GTPases, proteases, etc. as well as scaffolding molecules. The major integrin adhesion complexes (IACs) characterised are focal adhesions (FAs), invadosomes (podosomes and invadopodia), hemidesmosomes (HDs) and reticular adhesions (RAs). The varied composition and regulation of the IACs and their signalling, apart from being an integral part of normal cell survival, has been shown to be of paramount importance in various developmental and pathological processes. This review per-illustrates the recent advancements in the research of IACs, their crucial roles in normal as well as diseased states. We have also touched on few of the various methods that have been developed over the years to visualise IACs, measure the forces they exert and study their signalling and molecular composition. Having such pertinent roles in the context of various pathologies, these IACs need to be understood and studied to develop therapeutical targets. We have given an update to the studies done in recent years and described various techniques which have been applied to study these structures, thereby, providing context in furthering research with respect to IAC targeted therapeutics.

Electrophoretic cytometry of adherent cells

Cell-matrix and cell-cell interactions influence intracellular signalling and play an important role in physiologic and pathologic processes. Detachment of cells from the surrounding microenvironment alters intracellular signalling. Here, we demonstrate and characterise an integrated microfluidic device to culture single and clustered cells in tuneable microenvironments and then directly analyse the lysate of each cell in situ, thereby eliminating the need to detach cells prior to analysis. First, we utilise microcontact printing to pattern cells in confined geometries. We then utilise a microscale isoelectric focusing (IEF) module to separate, detect, and analyse lamin A/C from substrate-adhered cells seeded and cultured at varying (500, 2000, and 9000 cells per cm2) densities. We report separation performance (minimum resolvable pI difference of 0.11) that is on par with capillary IEF and independent of cell density. Moreover, we map lamin A/C and β-tubulin protein expression to morphometric information (cell area, circumference, eccentricity, form factor, and cell area factor) of single cells and observe poor correlation with each of these parameters. By eliminating the need for cell detachment from substrates, we enhance detection of cell receptor proteins (CD44 and β-integrin) and dynamic phosphorylation events (pMLCS19) that are rendered undetectable or disrupted by enzymatic treatments. Finally, we optimise protein solubilisation and separation performance by tuning lysis and electrofocusing (EF) durations. We observe enhanced separation performance (decreased peak width) with longer EF durations by 25.1% and improved protein solubilisation with longer lysis durations. Overall, the combination of morphometric analyses of substrate-adhered cells, with minimised handling, will yield important insights into our understanding of adhesion-mediated signalling processes.

A Review of Cell Adhesion Studies for Biomedical and Biological Applications

Cell adhesion is essential in cell communication and regulation, and is of fundamental importance in the development and maintenance of tissues. The mechanical interactions between a cell and its extracellular matrix (ECM) can influence and control cell behavior and function. The essential function of cell adhesion has created tremendous interests in developing methods for measuring and studying cell adhesion properties. The study of cell adhesion could be categorized into cell adhesion attachment and detachment events. The study of cell adhesion has been widely explored via both events for many important purposes in cellular biology, biomedical, and engineering fields. Cell adhesion attachment and detachment events could be further grouped into the cell population and single cell approach. Various techniques to measure cell adhesion have been applied to many fields of study in order to gain understanding of cell signaling pathways, biomaterial studies for implantable sensors, artificial bone and tooth replacement, the development of tissue-on-a-chip and organ-on-a-chip in tissue engineering, the effects of biochemical treatments and environmental stimuli to the cell adhesion, the potential of drug treatments, cancer metastasis study, and the determination of the adhesion properties of normal and cancerous cells. This review discussed the overview of the available methods to study cell adhesion through attachment and detachment events.

Validation of the effects of TGF-β1 on tumor recurrence and prognosis through tumor retrieval and cell mechanical properties

Background

In vivo, the transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-β1)-induced epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) occurs in seconds during cancer cells intravasation and extravasation. Although it has been established that cellular stiffness can change as a cancer cell transformed, the precise relationship between TGF-β1-induced mesenchymal stem cell mechanics and cancer prognosis remains unclear. Accordingly, it is hard to define the effects of EMT on cell mechanical properties (CMs), tumor recurrence and metastasis risks. This study bridges physical and pathological disciplines to reconcile single-cell mechanical measurements of tumor cells.

Methods and results

We developed a microplate measurement system (MMS) and revealed the intrinsic divergent tumor composition of retrieval cells by cell stiffness and adhesion force and flow cytometry analysis. After flow cytometry sorting, we could measure the differences in CMs of the Sca-1⁺-CD44⁺ (mesenchymal-stem-cell-type) and the other subgroups. As well as the stiffer and heterogeneous compositions among tumor tissues with higher recurrence risk were depicted by MMS and atomic force microscopy (AFM). An in vitro experiment validated that Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) cells acquired higher CMs and motility after EMT, but abrogated by SB-505124 inhibition. Concomitantly, the CD31, MMP13 and TGF-β1 enriched micro-environment in the tumor was associated with higher recurrence and distal lung metastasis risks. Furthermore, we report a comprehensive effort to correlate CMs to tumor-prognosis indicators, in which a decreased body weight gain ratio (BWG) and increased tumor weight (TW) were correlated with increased CMs.

Conclusions

Together, we determined that TGF-β1 was significantly associated with malignant tumor progressing. In terms of clinical applications, local tumor excision followed by MMS analysis offers an opportunity to predict tumor recurrence and metastasis risks.

PDMS Elastic Micropost Arrays for Studying Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells

This paper describes the design, modeling, fabrication and characterization of a micromachined array of high-density 3-dimensional microposts (100×100) made of flexible material (silicone elastomers) for use to measure quantitatively the cellular traction force and contractile events in isolated vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). The micropost array was fabricated with diameters ranged from 3 to 10 μm, with edge to edge spacing of 5, 7 and 10 μm, and with a height to diameter aspect ratio up to 10. VSMCs exerted larger basal traction forces when they were grown on stiffer micropost arrays. These basal traction forces were 80% larger in control VSMCs than in VSMCs in which integrin linked kinase (ILK) was knocked down using shRNA. The addition of Angiotensin II (ANGII) led to VSMC contraction as evidenced by an increased traction force exerted on the microposts under the cell. This ANGII induced contractile response and change in traction force on the microposts was not observed in VSMCs lacking ILK. Following treatment of VSMCs with Cytochalasin D to depolymerize the actin cytoskeleton, the VSMCs exhibited relaxation that was apparent as a significant reduction in the measured traction force exerted on microposts under the cell. Overall, this study demonstrates the usefulness of micropost arrays for study of the contractile responsiveness of VSMC and the results indicate that ILK plays a critical role in the signaling pathways leading to the generation of substrate traction force in VSMC.

Enhancement of renal epithelial cell functions through microfluidic-based coculture with adipose-derived stem cells

Current hemodialysis has functional limitations and is insufficient for renal transplantation. The bioartificial tubule device has been developed to contribute to metabolic functions by implanting renal epithelial cells into hollow tubes and showed a higher survival rate in acute kidney injury patients. In healthy kidney, epithelial cells are surrounded by various types of cells that interact with extracellular matrices, which are primarily composed of laminin and collagen. The current study developed a microfluidic coculture platform to enhance epithelial cell function in bioartificial microenvironments with multiple microfluidic channels that are microfabricated by polydimethylsiloxane. Collagen gel (CG) encapsulated with adipose-derived stem cells (CG-ASC) was injected into a central microfluidic channel for three-dimensional (3D) culture. The resuspended Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells were injected into nascent channels and formed an epithelial monolayer. In comparison to coculture different cells using the commercial transwell system, the current coculture device allowed living cell monitoring of both the MDCK epithelial monolayer and CG-ASC in a 3D microenvironment. By coculture with CG-ASC, the cell height was increased with columnar shapes in MDCK. Promotion of cilia formation and functional expression of the ion transport protein in MDCK were also observed in the cocultured microfluidic device. When applying fluid flow, the intracellular protein dynamics can be monitored in the current platform by using the time-lapse confocal microscopy and transfection of GFP-tubulin plasmid in MDCK. Thus, this microfluidic coculture device provides the renal epithelial cells with both morphological and functional improvements that may avail to develop bioartificial renal chips.

Evaluation of the single yeast cell's adhesion to ITO substrates with various surface energies via ESEM nanorobotic manipulation system

Cell-surface adhesion force is important for cell activities and the development of bio materials. In this paper, a method for in situ single cell (W303) adhesion force measurement was proposed based on nanorobotic manipulation system inside an environment scanning electron microscope (ESEM). An end effector was fabricated from a commercial atomic force microscope (AFM) cantilever by focused ion beam (FIB) etching. The spring constant of it was calibrated by nanomanipulation approach. Three kinds of hydrophilic and hydrophobic ITO plates were prepared by using VUV-irradiation and OTS coating techniques. The shear adhesion strength of the single yeast cell to each substrate was measured based on the deflection of the end effector. The results demonstrated that the cell adhesion force was larger under the wet condition in the ESEM environment than in the aqueous condition. It also showed that the cell adhesion force to hydrophilic surface was larger than that to the hydrophobic surface. Studies of single cell's adhesion on various plate surfaces and environments could give new insights into the tissue engineering and biological field.

Study of the time effect on the strength of cell-cell adhesion force by a novel nano-picker

Cell's adhesion is important to cell's interaction and activates. In this paper, a novel method for cell-cell adhesion force measurement was proposed by using a nano-picker. The effect of the contact time on the cell-cell adhesion force was studied. The nano-picker was fabricated from an atomic force microscopy (AFM) cantilever by nano fabrication technique. The cell-cell adhesion force was measured based on the deflection of the nano-picker beam. The result suggests that the adhesion force between cells increased with the increasing of contact time at the first few minutes. After that, the force became constant. This measurement methodology was based on the nanorobotic manipulation system inside an environmental scanning electron microscope. It can realize both the observation and manipulation of a single cell at nanoscale. The quantitative and precise cell-cell adhesion force result can be obtained by this method. It would help us to understand the single cell interaction with time and would benefit the research in medical and biological fields potentially.

Effect of ambient humidity on the strength of the adhesion force of single yeast cell inside environmental-SEM

A novel method for measuring an adhesion force of single yeast cell is proposed based on a nanorobotic manipulation system inside an environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM). The effect of ambient humidity on a single yeast cell adhesion force was studied. Ambient humidity was controlled by adjusting the chamber pressure and temperature inside the ESEM. It has been demonstrated that a thicker water film was formed at a higher humidity condition. The adhesion force between an atomic force microscopy (AFM) cantilever and a tungsten probe which later on known as a substrate was evaluated at various humidity conditions. A micro-puller was fabricated from an AFM cantilever by use of focused ion beam (FIB) etching. The adhesion force of a single yeast cell (W303) to the substrate was measured using the micro-puller at the three humidity conditions: 100%, 70%, and 40%. The results showed that the adhesion force between the single yeast cell and the substrate is much smaller at higher humidity condition. The yeast cells were still alive after being observed and manipulated inside ESEM based on the result obtained from the re-culturing of the single yeast cell. The results from this work would help us to understand the ESEM system better and its potential benefit to the single cell analysis research.

Integrins stimulate E-cadherin-mediated intercellular adhesion by regulating Src-kinase activation and actomyosin contractility

Cadherins and integrins are major adhesion molecules regulating cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions. In vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated the existence of crosstalk between integrins and cadherins in cell adhesion and motility. We used a dual pipette assay to measure the force required to separate E-cadherin-producing cell doublets and to investigate the role of integrin in regulating the strength of intercellular adhesion. A greater force was required to separate cell doublets bound to fibronectin or vitronectin-coated beads than for doublets bound to polylysine-coated beads. This effect depended on cell spreading and the duration of stimulation. Cells expressing type II cadherin-7 also responded to fibronectin stimulation to produce a higher intercellular adhesion. Establishment of cadherin-mediated adhesion needed ROCK, MLCK and myosin ATPase II activity. The regulation of intercellular adhesion strength by integrin stimulation required activation of Src family kinases, ROCK and actomyosin contractility. These findings highlight the importance and mechanisms of molecular crosstalk between cadherins and integrins in the control of cell plasticity during histogenesis and morphogenesis.

Role of electrospun fibre diameter and corresponding specific surface area (SSA) on cell attachment

In order to develop scaffolds for tissue regeneration applications, it is important to develop an understanding of the kinetics of cell attachment as a function of scaffold geometry. In the present study, we investigated how the specific surface area of electrospun scaffolds affected cell attachment and spreading. Number of cells attached to the scaffold was measured by the relative intensity of a metabolic dye (MTS) and cell spreading was analysed for individual cells by measuring the area of projected F-actin cytoskeleton. We varied the fibre diameter to obtain a specific surface area distribution in the range 2.24-18.79 microm(-1). In addition, we had one case where the scaffolds had beads in them and therefore had non-uniform fibres. For each of these different geometries, we varied the cell-seeding density (0.5-1 x 10(5)) and the serum concentration (0-12%) over the first 8 h in an electrospun polycaprolactone NIH 3T3 fibroblast system. Cells on beaded scaffolds showed the lowest attachment and almost no F-actin spreading in all experiments indicating uniform fibre diameter is essential for electrospun scaffolds. For the uniform fibre scaffolds, cell attachment was a function of scaffold specific surface area (SSA) (18.79-2.24 microm(-1)) and followed two distinct trends: when scaffold SSA was < 7.13 microm(-1), cell adhesion rate remained largely unchanged; however, for SSA > 7.13 microm(-1) there was a significant increase in cellular attachment rate with increasing SSA. This indicated that nanofibrous scaffolds increased cellular adhesion compared to microfibrous scaffolds. This phenomenon is true for serum concentrations of 7.5% and higher. For 5% and lower serum concentration, cell attachment is low and higher SSA fails to make a significant improvement in cell attachment. When cell attachment was investigated at a single-cell level by measuring the projected actin area, a similar trend was noted where the effect of higher SSA led to higher projected area for cells at 8 h. These results indicate that uniform electrospun scaffolds with SSA provide a faster cell attachment compared to lower SSA and beaded scaffolds. These results indicate that continuous electrospun nanofibrous scaffolds may be a good substrate for rapid tissue regeneration.

Mechanical stretch decreases FAK phosphorylation and reduces cell migration through loss of JIP3-induced JNK phosphorylation in airway epithelial cells

JNK is a nonreceptor kinase involved in the early events that signal cell migration after injury. However, the linkage to early signals required to initiate the migration response to JNK has not been defined in airway epithelial cells, which exist in an environment subjected to cyclic mechanical strain (MS). The present studies demonstrate that the JNK/stress-activated protein kinase-associated protein 1 (JSAP1; also termed JNK-interacting protein 3, JIP3), a scaffold factor for MAPK cascades that links JNK activation to focal adhesion kinase (FAK), are both associated and activated following mechanical injury in 16HBE14o- human airway epithelial cells and that both FAK and JIP3 phosphorylation seen after injury are decreased in cells subjected to cyclic MS. Overexpression of either wild-type (WT)-FAK or WT-JIP3 enhanced phosphorylation and kinase activation of JNK and reduced the inhibitory effect of cyclic MS. These results suggest that cyclic MS impairs signaling of cell migration after injury via a pathway that involves FAK-JIP3-JNK.

Effects of applied DC electric field on ligament fibroblast migration and wound healing

Applied electric fields (static and pulsing) are widely used in orthopedic practices to treat nonunions and spine fusions and have been shown to improve ligament healing in vivo. Few studies, however, have addressed the effect of electric fields (EFs) on ligament fibroblast migration and biosynthesis. In the current study, we applied static and pulsing direct current (DC) EFs to calf anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) fibroblasts. ACL fibroblasts demonstrated enhanced migration speed and perpendicular alignment to the applied EFs. The motility of ligament fibroblasts was further modulated on type I collagen. In addition, type I collagen expression increased in ACL fibroblasts after exposure to pulsing EFs. In vitro wound-healing studies showed inhibitory effects of static EFs, which were alleviated with a pulsing EF. Our results demonstrate that applied EFs augment ACL fibroblast migration and biosynthesis and provide potential mechanisms by which EFs may be used for enhancing ligament healing and repair.

Expression of FAK-related non-kinase (FRNK) coincides with morphological change in the early stage of cell adhesion

Focal adhesion kinase (FAK), a protein tyrosine kinase, has recently been suggested to play a role in signal transduction through integrins. In fact, FAK is involved in cell proliferation and cell motility by performing signal transduction through integrins. FAK-related non-kinase (FRNK) has been found to be an inhibitor of FAK. As the expression level of FRNK in the cell is very low, the study of FRNK has been preferentially performed by gene overexpression, up to the present, and the role of constitutive FRNK in cells remains unclear. We hypothesized that FRNK is involved in the adhesion of cells to the extracellular matrix (ECM) and investigated the expression of FRNK by time kinetic analysis shortly after cell seeding. We found that FRNK expression was significantly increased in the cells during the early stage of cell adhesion to the ECM. These data indicated that FRNK plays an important role in cell adhesion during the very early stages of cell culture.

Imaging of cell migration

Cell migration is an essential process during many phases of development and adult life. Cells can either migrate as individuals or move in the context of tissues. Movement is controlled by internal and external signals, which activate complex signal transduction cascades resulting in highly dynamic and localised remodelling of the cytoskeleton, cell-cell and cell-substrate interactions. To understand these processes, it will be necessary to identify the critical structural cytoskeletal components, their spatio-temporal dynamics as well as those of the signalling pathways that control them. Imaging plays an increasingly important and powerful role in the analysis of these spatio-temporal dynamics. We will highlight a variety of imaging techniques and their use in the investigation of various aspects of cell motility, and illustrate their role in the characterisation of chemotaxis in Dictyostelium and cell movement during gastrulation in chick embryos in more detail.

Cell adhesion and related phenomena on the surface-modified Au-deposited nerve microelectrode examined by total impedance measurement and cell detachment tests

This study investigated alkanethiolate self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of varied chain lengths adsorbed upon novel Au-coated microelectrodes, of which the surface properties were quantitatively evaluated by surface characterization and 3T3 fibroblast cell adhesion, total impedance and cell detachment tests. Thin-film SAMs adsorbed upon Au/PI/Si provided a hydrophobic or passive surface with increased water contact angle and initial total impedance. From cell adhesion tests, we can observe that the film formed as a dense-packed spacer resulted in incomplete cell sealing of 3T3 cells upon the surface-modified microelectrode. Thus the decrease in cell coverage rate and in the slope in association with total impedance as a function of cell-surface reaction time can be found. To study the adhesion force of a comparable single cell attached upon varied modified surfaces, a cell detachment test using a triangular probe tip of a well defined cantilever was carried out in medium containing fibroblast cells. Overall, both the peak force and the work required to detach a comparable single cell from the anchoring domain corresponded well to the increased length of alkyl chains adsorbed upon Au/PI/Si. Both measurements on the SAM modified surfaces demonstrated much smaller values than those on the pristine Au/PI/Si surface. These results concluded that a cell-repulsive characteristic was clearly formed on the SAM modified microelectrode surface. The non-adhering properties of surface-modified microelectrodes should provide better sensitivity for neuromuscular stimulation as well as for the recording of infinitesimal neural signals in future applications of neural prostheses.

Prototypical Type I E-cadherin and Type II Cadherin-7 Mediate Very Distinct Adhesiveness through Their Extracellular Domains

Using a dual pipette assay that measures the force required to separate adherent cell doublets, we have quantitatively compared intercellular adhesiveness mediated by Type I (E- or N-cadherin) or Type II (cadherin-7 or -11) cadherins. At similar cadherin expression levels, cells expressing Type I cadherins adhered much more rapidly and strongly than cells expressing Type II cadherins. Using chimeric cadherins, we found that the extracellular domain exerts by far the dominant effect on cell adhesivity, that of E-cadherin conferring high adhesivity, and that of cadherin-7 conferring low adhesivity. Type I cadherins were incorporated to a greater extent into detergent-insoluble cytoskeletal complexes, and their cytoplasmic tails were much more effective in disrupting strong adherent junctions, suggesting that Type II cadherins form less stable complexes with beta-catenin. The present study demonstrates compellingly, for the first time, that cadherins are dramatically different in their ability to promote intercellular adhesiveness, a finding that has profound implications for the regulation of tissue morphogenesis.

TRAIL gene reorganizes the cytoskeleton and decreases the motility of human leukemic Jurkat cells

TRAIL can selectively induce rapid apoptosis of various types of tumor cells. We induced the expression of TRAIL in Jurkat cells, and measured the adhesion of cells to human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and laminin (LN) in a parallel plate flow chamber system and by using a colorimetric method. The apoptosis percentage, cycle distribution, intracellular Ca(2+) concentration, and adhesion molecule expression of the cells were detected by flow cytometry. Cytoskeleton was observed with a laser confocal microscopy. The roles of adhesion molecules in the cell interaction was defined by their function blocking. The results showed that TRAIL attenuated the adhesion of Jurkat cells to HUVECs and LN, as well as their transendothelial migration. The increased apoptosis and G1-phase cell percentages, decreased intracellular Ca(2+) concentration, depolymerized actin and impaired cell deformability could contribute to the decreased adhesion of Jurkat cells caused by TRAIL. Furthermore, CD11a was found to play a more important role than CD62L in the adhesion of Jurkat cells to HUVECs. These findings contribute to the knowledge on the role of TRAIL in tumor metastasis and provide mechanistic basis for the clinical application of TRAIL and tumor therapy.