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Tremblay-Laganière C, Michaud C, Abourjaili-Bilodeau R, Cabezas A, Canales J, Costas MJ, Ribeiro JM, Leclerc-Blain J, Touzot F, Haddad E, Teira P, Duval M, Onoufriadis A, Meunier B, Cameselle JC, Campeau PM. Homozygous variant in TKFC abolishing triokinase activities is associated with isolated immunodeficiency. J Med Genet 2024; 61:886-890. [PMID: 38697782 DOI: 10.1136/jmg-2024-109853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/05/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Triokinase and FMN cyclase (TKFC) is a bifunctional enzyme involved in fructose metabolism. Triokinase catalyses the phosphorylation of fructose-derived glyceraldehyde (GA) and exogenous dihydroxyacetone (DHA), while FMN cyclase generates cyclic FMN. TKFC regulates the antiviral immune response by interacting with IFIH1 (MDA5). Previously reported pathogenic variants in TKFC are associated with either a multisystemic disease or isolated hypotrichosis with loose anagen hairs. METHODS Whole-exome sequencing identified a homozygous novel variant in TKFC (c.1624G>A; p.Gly542Arg) in an individual with a complex primary immunodeficiency disorder. The variant was characterised using enzymatic assays and yeast studies of mutant recombinant proteins. RESULTS The individual presented with chronic active Epstein-Barr virus disease and multiple bacterial and viral infections. Clinical investigations revealed hypogammaglobulinaemia, near absent natural killer cells and decreased memory B cells. Enzymatic assays showed that this variant displayed defective DHA and GA kinase activity while maintaining FMN cyclase activity. An allogenic bone marrow transplantation corrected the patient's immunodeficiency. CONCLUSION Our report suggests that TKFC may have a role in the immunological system. The pathological features associated with this variant are possibly linked with DHA/GA kinase inactivation through a yet an unknown mechanism. This report thus adds a possible new pathway of immunometabolism to explore further.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Coralie Michaud
- Research Centre, CHU Sainte-Justine, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | | | - Alicia Cabezas
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - José Canales
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - María Jesús Costas
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - João M Ribeiro
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | | | - Fabien Touzot
- Department of Pediatrics, CHU Sainte-Justine, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Elie Haddad
- Pediatrics, University of Montreal, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Pierre Teira
- Department of Pediatrics, CHU Sainte-Justine, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Michel Duval
- Department of Pediatrics, CHU Sainte-Justine, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | | | - Brigitte Meunier
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Paris-Saclay University, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - José Carlos Cameselle
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
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Ribeiro JM, Costas MJ, Cabezas A, Meunier B, Onoufriadis A, Cameselle JC. The TKFC Ala185Thr variant, reported as "null" for fructose metabolism, is fully active as triokinase. FEBS Lett 2022; 596:1453-1457. [PMID: 35114011 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
TKFC-encoded triokinase catalyzes glyceraldehyde phosphorylation in fructose metabolism and favors lipogenesis in mice. In Tkfc knockouts or knockdowns, fructose oxidation predominates over lipogenesis. The highly-prevalent human variant Ala185Thr-TKFC has been reported to be "null" for fructose metabolism, since Ala185-TKFC rescues the mouse TKFC-deficient phenotype, whereas Ala185Thr-TKFC does not. Such report implies that most humans would display a non-canonical fructose metabolism, but it ignores the well-characterized triokinase activity of Ala185Thr-TKFC. Here, earlier evidence is summarized, along with new evidence that both human variants are equally active in yeast. Therefore, future research on triokinase in the context of human fructose metabolism should consider that Ala185Thr-TKFC is not biochemically "null".
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Affiliation(s)
- João M Ribeiro
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - María Jesús Costas
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - Alicia Cabezas
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - Brigitte Meunier
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), 91198, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Alexandros Onoufriadis
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, School of Basic and Medical Biosciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - José Carlos Cameselle
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
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Viecenz JM, Garavaglia PA, Tasso LM, Maidana CG, Bautista Cannata JJ, García GA. Identification and biochemical characterization of an ATP-dependent dihydroxyacetone kinase from Trypanosoma cruzi. Exp Parasitol 2021; 231:108178. [PMID: 34767777 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2021.108178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Revised: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Dihydroxyacetone (DHA) can be used as an energy source by many cell types; however, it is toxic at high concentrations. The enzyme dihydroxyacetone kinase (DAK) has shown to be involved in DHA detoxification and osmoregulation. Among protozoa of the genus Trypanosoma, T. brucei, which causes sleeping sickness, is highly sensitive to DHA and does not have orthologous genes to DAK. Conversely, T. cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas Disease, has two putative ATP-dependent DAK (TcDAKs) sequences in its genome. Here we show that T. cruzi epimastigote lysates present a DAK specific activity of 27.1 nmol/min/mg of protein and that this form of the parasite is able to grow in the presence of 2 mM DHA. TcDAK gene was cloned and the recombinant enzyme (recTcDAK) was expressed in Escherichia coli. An anti-recTcDAK serum reacted with a protein of the expected molecular mass of 61 kDa in epimastigotes. recTcDAK presented maximal activity using Mg+2, showing a Km of 6.5 μM for DHA and a K0.5 of 124.7 μM for ATP. As it was reported for other DAKs, recTcDAK activity was inhibited by FAD with an IC50 value of 0.33 mM. In conclusion, TcDAK is the first DAK described in trypanosomatids confirming another divergent metabolism between T. brucei and T. cruzi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Matías Viecenz
- Instituto Nacional de Parasitología "Dr. Mario Fatala Chaben"-ANLIS "Dr. Carlos G. Malbrán". Paseo Colón 568, Buenos Aires, (1063), Argentina
| | - Patricia Andrea Garavaglia
- Instituto Nacional de Parasitología "Dr. Mario Fatala Chaben"-ANLIS "Dr. Carlos G. Malbrán". Paseo Colón 568, Buenos Aires, (1063), Argentina
| | - Laura Mónica Tasso
- Instituto Nacional de Parasitología "Dr. Mario Fatala Chaben"-ANLIS "Dr. Carlos G. Malbrán". Paseo Colón 568, Buenos Aires, (1063), Argentina
| | - Cristina Graciela Maidana
- Instituto Nacional de Parasitología "Dr. Mario Fatala Chaben"-ANLIS "Dr. Carlos G. Malbrán". Paseo Colón 568, Buenos Aires, (1063), Argentina
| | - Joaquín Juan Bautista Cannata
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas (IIB-INTECH) "Dr. Rodolfo A. Ugalde", Universidad Nacional de General San Martín-CONICET, San Martín, (1650), Prov. Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Gabriela Andrea García
- Instituto Nacional de Parasitología "Dr. Mario Fatala Chaben"-ANLIS "Dr. Carlos G. Malbrán". Paseo Colón 568, Buenos Aires, (1063), Argentina.
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Mehta R, Sonavane M, Migaud ME, Gassman NR. Exogenous exposure to dihydroxyacetone mimics high fructose induced oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2021; 62:185-202. [PMID: 33496975 PMCID: PMC7954877 DOI: 10.1002/em.22425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Dihydroxyacetone (DHA) is a three-carbon sugar that is the active ingredient in sunless tanning products and a by-product of electronic cigarette (e-cigarette) combustion. Increased use of sunless tanning products and e-cigarettes has elevated exposures to DHA through inhalation and absorption. Studies have confirmed that DHA is rapidly absorbed into cells and can enter into metabolic pathways following phosphorylation to dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), a product of fructose metabolism. Recent reports have suggested metabolic imbalance and cellular stress results from DHA exposures. However, the impact of elevated exposure to DHA on human health is currently under-investigated. We propose that exogenous exposures to DHA increase DHAP levels in cells and mimic fructose exposures to produce oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and gene and protein expression changes. Here, we review cell line and animal model exposures to fructose to highlight similarities in the effects produced by exogenous exposures to DHA. Given the long-term health consequences of fructose exposure, this review emphasizes the pressing need to further examine DHA exposures from sunless tanning products and e-cigarettes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raj Mehta
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, University of South Alabama, College of Medicine, Mobile, AL USA
- Mitchell Cancer Institute, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL USA
| | - Manoj Sonavane
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, University of South Alabama, College of Medicine, Mobile, AL USA
- Mitchell Cancer Institute, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL USA
| | - Marie E. Migaud
- Mitchell Cancer Institute, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL USA
- Department of Pharmacology, University of South Alabama, College of Medicine, Mobile, AL USA
| | - Natalie R. Gassman
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, University of South Alabama, College of Medicine, Mobile, AL USA
- Mitchell Cancer Institute, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL USA
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Onoufriadis A, Cabezas A, Ng JCF, Canales J, Costas MJ, Ribeiro JM, Rodrigues JR, McAleer MA, Castelo-Soccio L, Simpson MA, Fraternali F, Irvine AD, Cameselle JC, McGrath JA. Autosomal recessive hypotrichosis with loose anagen hairs associated with TKFC mutations. Br J Dermatol 2020; 184:935-943. [PMID: 32790068 DOI: 10.1111/bjd.19481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Loose anagen hair is a rare form of impaired hair anchorage in which anagen hairs that lack inner and outer root sheaths can be gently and painlessly plucked from the scalp. This condition usually occurs in children and is often self-limiting. A genetic basis for the disorder has been suggested but not proven. A better understanding the aetiology of loose anagen hair may improve prevention and treatment strategies. OBJECTIVES To identify a possible genetic basis of loose anagen hair using next-generation DNA sequencing and functional analysis of variants identified. METHODS In this case study, whole-exome sequencing analysis of a pedigree with one affected individual with features of loose anagen hair was performed. RESULTS The patient was found to be compound heterozygous for two single-nucleotide substitutions in TKFC resulting in the following missense mutations: c.574G> C (p.Gly192Arg) and c.682C> T (p.Arg228Trp). Structural analysis of human TKFC showed that both mutations are located near the active site cavity. Kinetic assays of recombinant proteins bearing either of these amino acid substitutions showed almost no dihydroxyacetone kinase or D-glyceraldehyde kinase activity, and FMN cyclase activity reduced to just 10% of wildtype catalytic activity. CONCLUSIONS TKFC missense mutations may predispose to the development of loose anagen hairs. Identification of this new biochemical pathobiology expands the metabolic and genetic basis of hypotrichosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Onoufriadis
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, School of Basic and Medical Biosciences, Guy's Hospital, King's College London, London, UK
| | - A Cabezas
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - J C F Ng
- Randall Centre for Cell and Molecular Biophysics, Guy's Hospital, King's College London, London, UK
| | - J Canales
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - M J Costas
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - J M Ribeiro
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - J R Rodrigues
- Laboratório Associado LSRE-LCM, Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Gestão, Instituto Politécnico de Leiria, Leiria, Portugal
| | - M A McAleer
- Paediatric Dermatology, Children's Health Ireland at Crumlin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - L Castelo-Soccio
- Pediatric Dermatology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia and University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - M A Simpson
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, School of Basic and Medical Biosciences, Guy's Hospital, King's College London, London, UK
| | - F Fraternali
- Randall Centre for Cell and Molecular Biophysics, Guy's Hospital, King's College London, London, UK
| | - A D Irvine
- Paediatric Dermatology, Children's Health Ireland at Crumlin, Dublin, Ireland.,Clinical Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - J C Cameselle
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - J A McGrath
- St John's Institute of Dermatology, School of Basic and Medical Biosciences, Guy's Hospital, King's College London, London, UK
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Bi-allelic Variants in TKFC Encoding Triokinase/FMN Cyclase Are Associated with Cataracts and Multisystem Disease. Am J Hum Genet 2020; 106:256-263. [PMID: 32004446 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2020.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We report an inborn error of metabolism caused by TKFC deficiency in two unrelated families. Rapid trio genome sequencing in family 1 and exome sequencing in family 2 excluded known genetic etiologies, and further variant analysis identified rare homozygous variants in TKFC. TKFC encodes a bifunctional enzyme involved in fructose metabolism through its glyceraldehyde kinase activity and in the generation of riboflavin cyclic 4',5'-phosphate (cyclic FMN) through an FMN lyase domain. The TKFC homozygous variants reported here are located within the FMN lyase domain. Functional assays in yeast support the deleterious effect of these variants on protein function. Shared phenotypes between affected individuals with TKFC deficiency include cataracts and developmental delay, associated with cerebellar hypoplasia in one case. Further complications observed in two affected individuals included liver dysfunction and microcytic anemia, while one had fatal cardiomyopathy with lactic acidosis following a febrile illness. We postulate that deficiency of TKFC causes disruption of endogenous fructose metabolism leading to generation of by-products that can cause cataract. In line with this, an affected individual had mildly elevated urinary galactitol, which has been linked to cataract development in the galactosemias. Further, in light of a previously reported role of TKFC in regulating innate antiviral immunity through suppression of MDA5, we speculate that deficiency of TKFC leads to impaired innate immunity in response to viral illness, which may explain the fatal illness observed in the most severely affected individual.
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Rodrigues JR, Cameselle JC, Cabezas A, Ribeiro JM. Closure of the Human TKFC Active Site: Comparison of the Apoenzyme and the Complexes Formed with Either Triokinase or FMN Cyclase Substrates. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E1099. [PMID: 30836629 PMCID: PMC6429413 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20051099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Revised: 02/20/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Human triokinase/flavin mononucleotide (FMN) cyclase (hTKFC) catalyzes the adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-dependent phosphorylation of D-glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone (DHA), and the cyclizing splitting of flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). hTKFC structural models are dimers of identical subunits, each with two domains, K and L, with an L2-K1-K2-L1 arrangement. Two active sites lie between L2-K1 and K2-L1, where triose binds K and ATP binds L, although the resulting ATP-to-triose distance is too large (≈14 Å) for phosphoryl transfer. A 75-ns trajectory of molecular dynamics shows considerable, but transient, ATP-to-DHA approximations in the L2-K1 site (4.83 Å or 4.16 Å). To confirm the trend towards site closure, and its relationship to kinase activity, apo-hTKFC, hTKFC:2DHA:2ATP and hTKFC:2FAD models were submitted to normal mode analysis. The trajectory of hTKFC:2DHA:2ATP was extended up to 160 ns, and 120-ns trajectories of apo-hTKFC and hTKFC:2FAD were simulated. The three systems were comparatively analyzed for equal lengths (120 ns) following the principles of essential dynamics, and by estimating site closure by distance measurements. The full trajectory of hTKFC:2DHA:2ATP was searched for in-line orientations and short distances of DHA hydroxymethyl oxygens to ATP γ-phosphorus. Full site closure was reached only in hTKFC:2DHA:2ATP, where conformations compatible with an associative phosphoryl transfer occurred in L2-K1 for significant trajectory time fractions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joaquim Rui Rodrigues
- Laboratório Associado LSRE-LCM, Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Gestão, Instituto Politécnico de Leiria, P-2411-901 Leiria, Portugal.
| | - José Carlos Cameselle
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, E-06006 Badajoz, Spain.
| | - Alicia Cabezas
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, E-06006 Badajoz, Spain.
| | - João Meireles Ribeiro
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, E-06006 Badajoz, Spain.
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Genome-wide association study for feed efficiency and growth traits in U.S. beef cattle. BMC Genomics 2017; 18:386. [PMID: 28521758 PMCID: PMC5437562 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-017-3754-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 05/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) arrays for domestic cattle have catalyzed the identification of genetic markers associated with complex traits for inclusion in modern breeding and selection programs. Using actual and imputed Illumina 778K genotypes for 3887 U.S. beef cattle from 3 populations (Angus, Hereford, SimAngus), we performed genome-wide association analyses for feed efficiency and growth traits including average daily gain (ADG), dry matter intake (DMI), mid-test metabolic weight (MMWT), and residual feed intake (RFI), with marker-based heritability estimates produced for all traits and populations. Results Moderate and/or large-effect QTL were detected for all traits in all populations, as jointly defined by the estimated proportion of variance explained (PVE) by marker effects (PVE ≥ 1.0%) and a nominal P-value threshold (P ≤ 5e-05). Lead SNPs with PVE ≥ 2.0% were considered putative evidence of large-effect QTL (n = 52), whereas those with PVE ≥ 1.0% but < 2.0% were considered putative evidence for moderate-effect QTL (n = 35). Identical or proximal lead SNPs associated with ADG, DMI, MMWT, and RFI collectively supported the potential for either pleiotropic QTL, or independent but proximal causal mutations for multiple traits within and between the analyzed populations. Marker-based heritability estimates for all investigated traits ranged from 0.18 to 0.60 using 778K genotypes, or from 0.17 to 0.57 using 50K genotypes (reduced from Illumina 778K HD to Illumina Bovine SNP50). An investigation to determine if QTL detected by 778K analysis could also be detected using 50K genotypes produced variable results, suggesting that 50K analyses were generally insufficient for QTL detection in these populations, and that relevant breeding or selection programs should be based on higher density analyses (imputed or directly ascertained). Conclusions Fourteen moderate to large-effect QTL regions which ranged from being physically proximal (lead SNPs ≤ 3Mb) to fully overlapping for RFI, DMI, ADG, and MMWT were detected within and between populations, and included evidence for pleiotropy, proximal but independent causal mutations, and multi-breed QTL. Bovine positional candidate genes for these traits were functionally conserved across vertebrate species. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-017-3754-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Herman MA, Samuel VT. The Sweet Path to Metabolic Demise: Fructose and Lipid Synthesis. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2016; 27:719-730. [PMID: 27387598 PMCID: PMC5035631 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2016.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2016] [Revised: 06/06/2016] [Accepted: 06/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Epidemiological studies link fructose consumption with metabolic disease, an association attributable in part to fructose-mediated lipogenesis. The mechanisms governing fructose-induced lipogenesis and disease remain debated. Acutely, fructose increases de novo lipogenesis through the efficient and uninhibited action of ketohexokinase and aldolase B which yields substrates for fatty-acid synthesis. Chronic fructose consumption further enhances the capacity for hepatic fructose metabolism by activating several key transcription factors (i.e., SREBP1c and ChREBP) which augment the expression of lipogenic enzymes, increasing lipogenesis and further compounding hypertriglyceridemia and hepatic steatosis. Hepatic insulin resistance develops from diacylglycerol-PKCɛ-mediated impairment of insulin signaling and possibly additional mechanisms. Initiatives that decrease fructose consumption and therapies that block fructose-mediated lipogenesis will be necessary to avert future metabolic pandemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Herman
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, 330 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
| | - Varman T Samuel
- Yale University School of Medicine, 950 Campbell Avenue, West Haven, CT 06516, USA; Veterans Affairs Connecticut Healthcare System, 950 Campbell Avenue, West Haven, CT 06516, USA.
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Age-related proteostasis and metabolic alterations in Caspase-2-deficient mice. Cell Death Dis 2015; 6:e1615. [PMID: 25611376 PMCID: PMC4669765 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2014.567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2014] [Accepted: 11/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Ageing is a complex biological process for which underlying biochemical changes are still largely unknown. We performed comparative profiling of the cellular proteome and metabolome to understand the molecular basis of ageing in Caspase-2-deficient (Casp2−/−) mice that are a model of premature ageing in the absence of overt disease. Age-related changes were determined in the liver and serum of young (6–9 week) and aged (18–24 month) wild-type and Casp2−/− mice. We identified perturbed metabolic pathways, decreased levels of ribosomal and respiratory complex proteins and altered mitochondrial function that contribute to premature ageing in the Casp2−/− mice. We show that the metabolic profile changes in the young Casp2−/− mice resemble those found in aged wild-type mice. Intriguingly, aged Casp2−/− mice were found to have reduced blood glucose and improved glucose tolerance. These results demonstrate an important role for caspase-2 in regulating proteome and metabolome remodelling during ageing.
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Gao X, Guo M, Li Q, Peng L, Liu H, Zhang L, Bai X, Wang Y, Li J, Cai C. Plasma metabolomic profiling to reveal antipyretic mechanism of Shuang-huang-lian injection on yeast-induced pyrexia rats. PLoS One 2014; 9:e100017. [PMID: 24940599 PMCID: PMC4062457 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0100017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2013] [Accepted: 05/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Shuang-huang-lian injection (SHLI) is a famous Chinese patent medicine, which has been wildly used in clinic for the treatment of acute respiratory tract infection, pneumonia, influenza, etc. The existing randomized controlled trial (RCT) studies suggested that SHLI could afford a certain anti-febrile action. However, seldom does research concern the pharmacological mechanisms of SHLI. In the current study, we explored plasma metabolomic profiling technique and selected potential metabolic markers to reveal the antipyretic mechanism of SHLI on yeast-induced pyrexia rat model using UPLC-Q-TOF/MS coupled with multivariate statistical analysis and pattern recognition techniques. We discovered a significant perturbance of metabolic profile in the plasma of fever rats and obvious reversion in SHLI-administered rats. Eight potential biomarkers, i.e. 1) 3-hydeoxybutyric acid, 2) leucine, 3) 16:0 LPC, 4) allocholic acid, 5) vitamin B2, 6) Cys-Lys-His, 7) 18:2 LPC, and 8) 3-hydroxychola-7, 22-dien-24-oic acid, were screened out by OPLS-DA approach. Five potential perturbed metabolic pathways, i.e. 1) valine, leucine, and isoleucine biosynthesis, 2) glycerophospholipid metabolism, 3) ketone bodies synthesis and degradation, 4) bile acid biosynthesis, and 5) riboflavin metabolism, were revealed to relate to the antipyretic mechanisms of SHLI. Overall, we investigated antipyretic mechanisms of SHLI at metabolomic level for the first time, and the obtained results highlights the necessity of adopting metabolomics as a reliable tool for understanding the holism and synergism of Chinese patent drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyan Gao
- Science experiment center for TCM, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Mingxing Guo
- Science experiment center for TCM, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Qiang Li
- School of Chinese material medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Long Peng
- Science experiment center for TCM, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Haiyu Liu
- Science experiment center for TCM, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Li Zhang
- Science experiment center for TCM, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Xu Bai
- Waters technologies (Shanghai) Ltd., Shanghai, China
| | - Yingxin Wang
- The 2 Traditional Chinese Medicine factory of Harbin pharm group CO. LTD, Harbin, China
| | - Jian Li
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
- * E-mail: (JL); (CC)
| | - Chengke Cai
- School of Chinese material medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
- * E-mail: (JL); (CC)
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12
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Rodrigues JR, Couto A, Cabezas A, Pinto RM, Ribeiro JM, Canales J, Costas MJ, Cameselle JC. Bifunctional homodimeric triokinase/FMN cyclase: contribution of protein domains to the activities of the human enzyme and molecular dynamics simulation of domain movements. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:10620-10636. [PMID: 24569995 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.525626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammalian triokinase, which phosphorylates exogenous dihydroxyacetone and fructose-derived glyceraldehyde, is neither molecularly identified nor firmly associated to an encoding gene. Human FMN cyclase, which splits FAD and other ribonucleoside diphosphate-X compounds to ribonucleoside monophosphate and cyclic X-phosphodiester, is identical to a DAK-encoded dihydroxyacetone kinase. This bifunctional protein was identified as triokinase. It was modeled as a homodimer of two-domain (K and L) subunits. Active centers lie between K1 and L2 or K2 and L1: dihydroxyacetone binds K and ATP binds L in different subunits too distant (≈ 14 Å) for phosphoryl transfer. FAD docked to the ATP site with ribityl 4'-OH in a possible near-attack conformation for cyclase activity. Reciprocal inhibition between kinase and cyclase reactants confirmed substrate site locations. The differential roles of protein domains were supported by their individual expression: K was inactive, and L displayed cyclase but not kinase activity. The importance of domain mobility for the kinase activity of dimeric triokinase was highlighted by molecular dynamics simulations: ATP approached dihydroxyacetone at distances below 5 Å in near-attack conformation. Based upon structure, docking, and molecular dynamics simulations, relevant residues were mutated to alanine, and kcat and Km were assayed whenever kinase and/or cyclase activity was conserved. The results supported the roles of Thr(112) (hydrogen bonding of ATP adenine to K in the closed active center), His(221) (covalent anchoring of dihydroxyacetone to K), Asp(401) and Asp(403) (metal coordination to L), and Asp(556) (hydrogen bonding of ATP or FAD ribose to L domain). Interestingly, the His(221) point mutant acted specifically as a cyclase without kinase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joaquim Rui Rodrigues
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, E-06006 Badajoz, Spain; Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Gestão, Instituto Politécnico de Leiria, P-2411-901 Leiria, Portugal
| | - Ana Couto
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, E-06006 Badajoz, Spain
| | - Alicia Cabezas
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, E-06006 Badajoz, Spain
| | - Rosa María Pinto
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, E-06006 Badajoz, Spain
| | - João Meireles Ribeiro
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, E-06006 Badajoz, Spain
| | - José Canales
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, E-06006 Badajoz, Spain
| | - María Jesús Costas
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, E-06006 Badajoz, Spain
| | - José Carlos Cameselle
- Grupo de Enzimología, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Extremadura, E-06006 Badajoz, Spain.
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13
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Xu MY, Jia XF, Qu Y, Zheng RD, Yuan ZH, Weng HL, Dooley S, Wang XP, Zhang LJ, Lu LG. Serum dihydroxyacetone kinase peptide m/z 520.3 as predictor of disease severity in patients with compensated chronic hepatitis B. J Transl Med 2013; 11:234. [PMID: 24289155 PMCID: PMC3851457 DOI: 10.1186/1479-5876-11-234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2013] [Accepted: 09/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background & aim Due to known limitations of liver biopsy, reliable non-invasive serum biomarkers for chronic liver diseases are needed. We performed serum peptidomics for such investigation in compensated chronic hepatitis B (CHB) patients. Methods Liquid chromatography combined with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was used to identify differentially expressed peptides in sera from 40 CHB patients (20 with S0G0-S1G1 and 20 with S3G3-S4G4). Ion pair quantification from differentially expressed peptides in a validation set of sera from 86 CHB patients was done with multiple reaction monitoring (MRM). Results 21 differentially represented peptide peaks were found through LC-MS/MS. Ion pairs generated from eleven of these peptides (m/z < 800) were quantified by MRM. Summed peak area ratios of 6 ion pairs from peptide m/z 520.3 (176.1, 353.7, 459.8, 503.3, 351.3, 593.1), which was identified as dihydroxyacetone kinase (DAK) fragment, decreased from mild to advanced stages of fibrosis or inflammation. Area Under Receiver Operating Characteristic Curves (AUROCs) of five ion models discriminating fibrosis degrees were 0.871 ~ 0.915 (S2-4 versus S0-1) and 0.804 ~ 0.924 (S3-4 versus S0-2). AUROCs discriminating inflammation grades were 0.840 ~ 0.902 (G2-4 versus G0-1) and 0.787 ~ 0.888 (G3-4 versus G0-2). The diagnostic power of these models provides improved sensitivity and specificity for predicting disease progression as compared to aspartate aminotransferase to platelet ratio index (APRI), FIB-4, Forn’s index and serum DAK protein. Conclusions The peptide fragment (m/z 520.3) of DAK is a promising biomarker to guide timing of antiviral treatment and to avoid liver biopsy in compensated CHB patients.
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14
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Choi SJ, Rhee HW, Kim J, Chung DS, Hong JI. Fluorescent Assay of Cyclic Nucleotide Phosphodiesterase Activity in a Neutral Aqueous Solution. B KOREAN CHEM SOC 2013. [DOI: 10.5012/bkcs.2013.34.1.31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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15
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Lapalikar GV, Taylor MC, Warden AC, Onagi H, Hennessy JE, Mulder RJ, Scott C, Brown SE, Russell RJ, Easton CJ, Oakeshott JG. Cofactor promiscuity among F420-dependent reductases enables them to catalyse both oxidation and reduction of the same substrate. Catal Sci Technol 2012. [DOI: 10.1039/c2cy20129a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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16
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Regulation of virus-triggered type I interferon signaling by cellular and viral proteins. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 5:12-31. [PMID: 32215003 PMCID: PMC7088834 DOI: 10.1007/s11515-010-0013-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2009] [Accepted: 12/15/2009] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Host pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) recognize invading viral pathogens and initiate a series of signaling cascades that lead to the expression of type I interferons (IFNs) and inflammatory cytokines. During the past decade, significant progresses have been made to characterize PRRs such as Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs) and elucidate the molecular mechanisms of TLR- and RLR-mediated signaling. To avoid excessive and harmful immune effects caused by over-activation of these signaling pathways, host cells adopt a number of strategies to regulate them. In addition, invading viruses also employ a variety of mechanisms to inhibit the production of type I IFNs, thereby evading the supervision and clearance by the host. In this review, we briefly summarize the TLR- and RLR-mediated type I IFN signaling and then focus on the mechanisms by which host cellular and viral components regulate the expression of type I IFNs.
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17
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Rhee HW, Choi SJ, Yoo SH, Jang YO, Park HH, Pinto RM, Cameselle JC, Sandoval FJ, Roje S, Han K, Chung DS, Suh J, Hong JI. A bifunctional molecule as an artificial flavin mononucleotide cyclase and a chemosensor for selective fluorescent detection of flavins. J Am Chem Soc 2009; 131:10107-12. [PMID: 19569646 DOI: 10.1021/ja9018012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Flavins, comprising flavin mononucleotide (FMN), flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), and riboflavin (RF, vitamin B(2)), play important roles in numerous redox reactions such as those taking place in the electron-transfer chains of mitochondria in all eukaryotes and of plastids in plants. A selective chemosensor for flavins would be useful not only in the investigation of metabolic processes but also in the diagnosis of diseases related to flavins; such a sensor is presently unavailable. Herein, we report the first bifunctional chemosensor (PTZ-DPA) for flavins. PTZ-DPA consists of bis(Zn(2+)-dipicolylamine) and phenothiazine. Bis(Zn(2+)-dipicolylamine) (referred to here as XyDPA) was found to be an excellent catalyst in the conversion of FAD into cyclic FMN (riboflavin 4',5'-cyclic phosphate, cFMN) under physiological conditions, even at pH 7.4 and 27 degrees C, with less than 1 mol % of substrate. Utilizing XyDPA's superior function as an artificial FMN cyclase and phenothiazine as an electron donor able to quench the fluorescence of an isoalloxazine ring, PTZ-DPA enabled selective fluorescent discrimination of flavins (FMN, FAD, and RF): FAD shows ON(+), FMN shows OFF(-), and RF shows NO(0) fluorescence changes upon the addition of PTZ-DPA. With this selective sensing property, PTZ-DPA is applicable to real-time fluorescent monitoring of riboflavin kinase (RF to FMN), alkaline phosphatase (FMN to RF), and FAD synthetase (FMN to FAD).
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun-Woo Rhee
- Department of Chemistry, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-747, Korea
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Sánchez-Moreno I, Iturrate L, Martín-Hoyos R, Jimeno ML, Mena M, Bastida A, García-Junceda E. From kinase to cyclase: an unusual example of catalytic promiscuity modulated by metal switching. Chembiochem 2009; 10:225-9. [PMID: 19058275 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.200800573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Israel Sánchez-Moreno
- Departamento de Química Orgánica Biológica, Instituto de Química Orgánica General, CSIC, Juan de la Cierva 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain
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19
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Komuro A, Bamming D, Horvath CM. Negative regulation of cytoplasmic RNA-mediated antiviral signaling. Cytokine 2008; 43:350-8. [PMID: 18703349 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2008.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2008] [Accepted: 07/22/2008] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The recent, rapid progress in our understanding of cytoplasmic RNA-mediated antiviral innate immune signaling was initiated by the discovery of retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) as a sensor of viral RNA. It is now widely recognized that RIG-I and related RNA helicases, melanoma differentiation-associated gene-5 (MDA5) and laboratory of genetics and physiology-2 (LGP2), can initiate and/or regulate RNA and virus-mediated type I IFN production and antiviral responses. As with other cytokine systems, production of type I IFN is a transient process, and can be hazardous to the host if unregulated, resulting in chronic cellular toxicity or inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. In addition, the RIG-I-like receptor (RLR) system is a fundamental target for virus-encoded immune suppression, with many indirect and direct examples of interference described. In this article, we review the current understanding of endogenous negative regulation in RLR signaling and explore direct inhibition of RLR signaling by viruses as a host immune evasion strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akihiko Komuro
- Department of Medicine, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
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20
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Mn2+-dependent ADP-ribose/CDP-alcohol pyrophosphatase: a novel metallophosphoesterase family preferentially expressed in rodent immune cells. Biochem J 2008; 413:103-13. [PMID: 18352857 DOI: 10.1042/bj20071471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
ADPRibase-Mn (Mn2+-dependent ADP-ribose/CDP-alcohol pyrophosphatase) was earlier isolated from rat liver supernatants after separation from ADPRibase-I and ADPRibase-II (Mg2+-activated ADP-ribose pyrophosphatases devoid of CDP-alcohol pyrophosphatase activity). The last mentioned are putative Nudix hydrolases, whereas the molecular identity of ADPRibase-Mn is unknown. MALDI (matrix-assisted laser-desorption ionization) MS data from rat ADPRibase-Mn pointed to a hypothetical protein that was cloned and expressed and showed the expected specificity. It is encoded by the RGD1309906 rat gene, which so far has been annotated simply as 'hydrolase'. ADPRibase-Mn is not a Nudix hydrolase, but it shows the sequence and structural features typical of the metallophosphoesterase superfamily. It may constitute a protein family of its own, the members of which appear to be specific to vertebrates, plants and algae. ADP-ribose was successfully docked to a model of rat ADPRibase-Mn, revealing its putative active centre. Microarray data from the GEO (Gene Expression Omnibus) database indicated that the mouse gene 2310004I24Rik, an orthologue of RGD1309906, is preferentially expressed in immune cells. This was confirmed by Northern-blot and activity assay of ADPRibase-Mn in rat tissues. A possible role of ADPRibase-Mn in immune cell signalling is suggested by the second-messenger role of ADP-ribose, which activates TRPM2 (transient receptor potential melastatin channel-2) ion channels as a mediator of oxidative/nitrosative stress, and by the signalling function assigned to many of the microarray profile neighbours of 2310004I24Rik. Furthermore, the influence of ADPRibase-Mn on the CDP-choline or CDP-ethanolamine pathways of phospholipid biosynthesis cannot be discounted.
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21
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Diao F, Li S, Tian Y, Zhang M, Xu LG, Zhang Y, Wang RP, Chen D, Zhai Z, Zhong B, Tien P, Shu HB. Negative regulation of MDA5- but not RIG-I-mediated innate antiviral signaling by the dihydroxyacetone kinase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:11706-11. [PMID: 17600090 PMCID: PMC1913852 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0700544104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2007] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Viral infection leads to activation of the transcription factors interferon regulatory factor-3 and NF-kappaB, which collaborate to induce type I IFNs. The RNA helicase proteins RIG-I and MDA5 were recently identified as two cytoplasmic viral RNA sensors that recognize different species of viral RNAs produced during viral replication. In this study, we identified DAK, a functionally unknown dihydroacetone kinase, as a specific MDA5-interacting protein. DAK was associated with MDA5, but not RIG-I, under physiological conditions. Overexpression of DAK inhibited MDA5- but not RIG-I- or TLR3-mediated IFN-beta induction. Overexpression of DAK also inhibited cytoplasmic dsRNA and SeV-induced activation of the IFN-beta promoter, whereas knockdown of endogenous DAK by RNAi activated the IFN-beta promoter, and increased cytoplasmic dsRNA- or SeV-triggered activation of the IFN-beta promoter. In addition, overexpression of DAK inhibited MDA5- but not RIG-I-mediated antiviral activity, whereas DAK RNAi increased cytoplasmic dsRNA-triggered antiviral activity. These findings suggest that DAK is a physiological suppressor of MDA5 and specifically inhibits MDA5- but not RIG-I-mediated innate antiviral signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feici Diao
- *College of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Shu Li
- College of Life Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Yang Tian
- *College of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Min Zhang
- *College of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Liang-Guo Xu
- College of Life Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Yan Zhang
- *College of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Rui-Peng Wang
- *College of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Danying Chen
- *College of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Zhonghe Zhai
- *College of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Bo Zhong
- College of Life Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Po Tien
- College of Life Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Hong-Bing Shu
- College of Life Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Virology, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
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