Deficient base excision repair of oxidative DNA damage induced by methylene blue plus visible light in xeroderma pigmentosum group C fibroblasts

Transcription coupled base excision repair in mammalian cells: So little is known and so much to uncover

Oxidized bases in the genome has been implicated in various human pathologies, including cancer, aging and neurological diseases. Their repair is initiated with excision by DNA glycosylases (DGs) in the base excision repair (BER) pathway. Among the five oxidized base-specific human DGs, OGG1 and NTH1 preferentially excise oxidized purines and pyrimidines, respectively, while NEILs remove both oxidized purines and pyrimidines. However, little is known about why cells possess multiple DGs with overlapping substrate specificities. Studies of the past decades revealed that some DGs are involved in repair of oxidized DNA base lesions in the actively transcribed regions. Preferential removal of lesions from the transcribed strands of active genes, called transcription-coupled repair (TCR), was discovered as a distinct sub-pathway of nucleotide excision repair; however, such repair of oxidized DNA bases had not been established until our recent demonstration of NEIL2's role in TC-BER of the nuclear genome. We have shown that NEIL2 forms a distinct transcriptionally active, repair proficient complex. More importantly, we for the first time reconstituted TC-BER using purified components. These studies are important for characterizing critical requirement for the process. However, because NEIL2 cannot remove all types of oxidized bases, it is unlikely to be the only DNA glycosylase involved in TC-BER. Hence, we postulate TC-BER process to be universally involved in maintaining the functional integrity of active genes, especially in post-mitotic, non-growing cells. We further postulate that abnormal bases (e.g., uracil), and alkylated and other small DNA base adducts are also repaired via TC-BER. In this review, we have provided an overview of the various aspects of TC-BER in mammalian cells with the hope of generating significant interest of many researchers in the field. Further studies aimed at better understanding the mechanistic aspects of TC-BER could help elucidate the linkage of TC-BER deficiency to various human pathologies.

Nucleotide Excision Repair: From Molecular Defects to Neurological Abnormalities

Nucleotide excision repair (NER) is the most versatile DNA repair pathway, which can remove diverse bulky DNA lesions destabilizing a DNA duplex. NER defects cause several autosomal recessive genetic disorders. Xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) is one of the NER-associated syndromes characterized by low efficiency of the removal of bulky DNA adducts generated by ultraviolet radiation. XP patients have extremely high ultraviolet-light sensitivity of sun-exposed tissues, often resulting in multiple skin and eye cancers. Some XP patients develop characteristic neurodegeneration that is believed to derive from their inability to repair neuronal DNA damaged by endogenous metabolites. A specific class of oxidatively induced DNA lesions, 8,5′-cyclopurine-2′-deoxynucleosides, is considered endogenous DNA lesions mainly responsible for neurological problems in XP. Growing evidence suggests that XP is accompanied by defective mitophagy, as in primary mitochondrial disorders. Moreover, NER pathway is absent in mitochondria, implying that the mitochondrial dysfunction is secondary to nuclear NER defects. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of the NER molecular mechanism and focuses on the NER linkage with the neurological degeneration in patients with XP. We also present recent research advances regarding NER involvement in oxidative DNA lesion repair. Finally, we highlight how mitochondrial dysfunction may be associated with XP.

Interaction of a photosensitizer methylene blue with various structural forms (cruciform, bulge duplex and hairpin) of designed DNA sequences

Functionally important, local structural transitions in DNA generate various alternative conformations. Cruciform is one of such alternative DNA structures, usually targeted in genomes by various proteins. Symmetry elements in sequence as inverted repeats are the key factor for cruciform formation, facilitated by the presence of the AT-rich regions. Here, we used biophysical and biochemical techniques such as Gel electrophoresis, Circular dichroism (CD), and UV-thermal melting analysis to explore the structural status of the designed DNA sequences, which had potential to form cruciform structures under physiological conditions. The gel electrophoresis analysis revealed that the designed 53-mer DNA oligonucleotide sequence CR forms an intermolecular bulge duplex with flanking ends, while another sequence CRC adopts an intramolecular hairpin structure with flanking ends. Their equimolar complex (CRCRC) bestowed much-retarded migration due to the formation of a quite intriguing cruciform structure. CD studies confirmed that all the alternative structures (cruciform, bulge duplex, and hairpin with flanking ends) exhibit characteristics of B-DNA type conformation. A triphasic UV-thermal melting curve displayed by the complex formed by the equimolar ratio (CRCRC) is also suggestive of the formation of the cruciform structure. The interaction studies of CR, CRC, and their equimolar complex (1:1) with a photosensitizer methylene blue (MB) indicated that MB could not stabilize the discrete structures formed by CR and CRC sequences, however, the cruciform structure showed a quite significant increment in the melting temperature. Such studies facilitate our understanding of various secondary structures possibly present inside the cell and their interactions with drug/dye molecules.

The involvement of nucleotide excision repair proteins in the removal of oxidative DNA damage

The six major mammalian DNA repair pathways were discovered as independent processes, each dedicated to remove specific types of lesions, but the past two decades have brought into focus the significant interplay between these pathways. In particular, several studies have demonstrated that certain proteins of the nucleotide excision repair (NER) and base excision repair (BER) pathways work in a cooperative manner in the removal of oxidative lesions. This review focuses on recent data showing how the NER proteins, XPA, XPC, XPG, CSA, CSB and UV-DDB, work to stimulate known glycosylases involved in the removal of certain forms of base damage resulting from oxidative processes, and also discusses how some oxidative lesions are probably directly repaired through NER. Finally, since many glycosylases are inhibited from working on damage in the context of chromatin, we detail how we believe UV-DDB may be the first responder in altering the structure of damage containing-nucleosomes, allowing access to BER enzymes.

Cooperation and interplay between base and nucleotide excision repair pathways: From DNA lesions to proteins

Base and nucleotide excision repair (BER and NER) pathways are normally associated with removal of specific types of DNA damage: small base modifications (such as those induced by DNA oxidation) and bulky DNA lesions (such as those induced by ultraviolet or chemical carcinogens), respectively. However, growing evidence indicates that this scenario is much more complex and these pathways exchange proteins and cooperate with each other in the repair of specific lesions. In this review, we highlight studies discussing the involvement of NER in the repair of DNA damage induced by oxidative stress, and BER participating in the removal of bulky adducts on DNA. Adding to this complexity, UVA light experiments revealed that oxidative stress also causes protein oxidation, directly affecting proteins involved in both NER and BER. This reduces the cell’s ability to repair DNA damage with deleterious implications to the cells, such as mutagenesis and cell death, and to the organisms, such as cancer and aging. Finally, an interactome of NER and BER proteins is presented, showing the strong connection between these pathways, indicating that further investigation may reveal new functions shared by them, and their cooperation in maintaining genome stability.

Host Cell Reactivation: Assay for Actively Transcribed DNA (Nucleotide Excision) Repair Using Luciferase Family Expression Vectors

Host cell reactivation (HCR) is a transfection-based assay in which intact cells repair damage localized to exogenous DNA. This chapter provides instructions for the application of this technique, using as an exemplar UV irradiation as a source of damage to a luciferase reporter plasmid. Through measurement of the activity of a successfully transcribed and translated reporter enzyme, the amount of damaged plasmid that a cell can "reactivate" or repair and express can be quantitated. Different DNA repair pathways can be analyzed by this technique by damaging the reporter plasmid in different ways. Since it involves repair of a transcriptionally active gene, when applied to UV damage the HCR assay measures the capacity of the host cells to perform transcription-coupled repair (TCR), a subset of the overall nucleotide excision repair pathway that specifically targets transcribed gene sequences. This method features two ways to perform the assay using expression vectors with luciferase and beta galactosidase, as well as with firefly luciferase and Renilla luciferase using the same luminometer.

Xeroderma Pigmentosum Group C Deficiency Alters Cigarette Smoke DNA Damage Cell Fate and Accelerates Emphysema Development

Cigarette smoke (CS) exposure is a major risk factor for the development of emphysema, a common disease characterized by loss of cells comprising the lung parenchyma. The mechanisms of cell injury leading to emphysema are not completely understood but are thought to involve persistent cytotoxic or mutagenic DNA damage induced by CS. Using complementary cell culture and mouse models of CS exposure, we investigated the role of the DNA repair protein, xeroderma pigmentosum group C (XPC), on CS-induced DNA damage repair and emphysema. Expression of XPC was decreased in mouse lungs after chronic CS exposure and XPC knockdown in cultured human lung epithelial cells decreased their survival after CS exposure due to activation of the intrinsic apoptosis pathway. Similarly, cell autophagy and apoptosis were increased in XPC-deficient mouse lungs and were further increased by CS exposure. XPC deficiency was associated with structural and functional changes characteristic of emphysema, which were worsened by age, similar to levels observed with chronic CS exposure. Taken together, these findings suggest that repair of DNA damage by XPC plays an important and previously unrecognized role in the maintenance of alveolar structures. These findings support that loss of XPC, possibly due to chronic CS exposure, promotes emphysema development and further supports a link between DNA damage, impaired DNA repair, and development of emphysema.

Sunlight damage to cellular DNA: Focus on oxidatively generated lesions

The routine and often unavoidable exposure to solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation makes it one of the most significant environmental DNA-damaging agents to which humans are exposed. Sunlight, specifically UVB and UVA, triggers various types of DNA damage. Although sunlight, mainly UVB, is necessary for the production of vitamin D, which is necessary for human health, DNA damage may have several deleterious consequences, such as cell death, mutagenesis, photoaging and cancer. UVA and UVB photons can be directly absorbed not only by DNA, which results in lesions, but also by the chromophores that are present in skin cells. This process leads to the formation of reactive oxygen species, which may indirectly cause DNA damage. Despite many decades of investigation, the discrimination among the consequences of these different types of lesions is not clear. However, human cells have complex systems to avoid the deleterious effects of the reactive species produced by sunlight. These systems include antioxidants, that protect DNA, and mechanisms of DNA damage repair and tolerance. Genetic defects in these mechanisms that have clear harmful effects in the exposed skin are found in several human syndromes. The best known of these is xeroderma pigmentosum (XP), whose patients are defective in the nucleotide excision repair (NER) and translesion synthesis (TLS) pathways. These patients are mainly affected due to UV-induced pyrimidine dimers, but there is growing evidence that XP cells are also defective in the protection against other types of lesions, including oxidized DNA bases. This raises a question regarding the relative roles of the various forms of sunlight-induced DNA damage on skin carcinogenesis and photoaging. Therefore, knowledge of what occurs in XP patients may still bring important contributions to the understanding of the biological impact of sunlight-induced deleterious effects on the skin cells.

XPC deficiency is related to APE1 and OGG1 expression and function

Oxidative DNA damage is considered to be a major cause of neurodegeneration and internal tumors observed in syndromes that result from nucleotide excision repair (NER) deficiencies, such as Xeroderma Pigmentosum (XP) and Cockayne Syndrome (CS). Recent evidence has shown that NER aids in removing oxidized DNA damage and may interact with base excision repair (BER) enzymes. Here, we investigated APE1 and OGG1 expression, localization and activity after oxidative stress in XPC-deficient cells. The endogenous APE1 and OGG1 mRNA levels were lower in XPC-deficient fibroblasts. However, XPC-deficient cells did not show hypersensitivity to oxidative stress compared with NER-proficient cells. To confirm the impact of an XPC deficiency in regulating APE1 and OGG1 expression and activity, we established an XPC-complemented cell line. Although the XPC complementation was only partial and transient, the transfected cells exhibited greater OGG1 expression and activity compared with XPC-deficient cells. However, the APE1 expression and activity did not significantly change. Furthermore, we observed a physical interaction between the XPC and APE1 proteins. Together, the results indicate that the responses of XPC-deficient cells under oxidative stress may not only be associated with NER deficiency per se but may also include new XPC functions in regulating BER proteins.

DNA repair diseases: What do they tell us about cancer and aging?

The discovery of DNA repair defects in human syndromes, initially in xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) but later in many others, led to striking observations on the association of molecular defects and patients' clinical phenotypes. For example, patients with syndromes resulting from defective nucleotide excision repair (NER) or translesion synthesis (TLS) present high levels of skin cancer in areas exposed to sunlight. However, some defects in NER also lead to more severe symptoms, such as developmental and neurological impairment and signs of premature aging. Skin cancer in XP patients is clearly associated with increased mutagenesis and genomic instability, reflecting the defective repair of DNA lesions. By analogy, more severe symptoms observed in NER-defective patients have also been associated with defective repair, likely involving cell death after transcription blockage of damaged templates. Endogenously induced DNA lesions, particularly through oxidative stress, have been identified as responsible for these severe pathologies. However, this association is not that clear and alternative explanations have been proposed. Despite high levels of exposure to intense sunlight, patients from tropical countries receive little attention or care, which likely also reflects the lack of understanding of how DNA damage causes cancer and premature aging.

Slow accumulation of mutations in Xpc-/- mice upon induction of oxidative stress

XPC is one of the key DNA damage recognition proteins in the global genome repair route of the nucleotide excision repair (NER) pathway. Previously, we demonstrated that NER-deficient mouse models Xpa(-/-) and Xpc(-/-) exhibit a divergent spontaneous tumor spectrum and proposed that XPC might be functionally involved in the defense against oxidative DNA damage. Others have mechanistically dissected several functionalities of XPC to oxidative DNA damage sensitivity using in vitro studies. XPC has been linked to regulation of base excision repair (BER) activity, redox homeostasis and recruitment of ATM and ATR to damage sites, thereby possibly regulating cell cycle checkpoints and apoptosis. XPC has additionally been implicated in recognition of bulky (e.g. cyclopurines) and non-bulky DNA damage (8-oxodG). However, the ultimate contribution of the XPC functionality in vivo in the oxidative DNA damage response and subsequent mutagenesis process remains unclear. Our study indicates that Xpc(-/-) mice, in contrary to Xpa(-/-) and wild type mice, have an increased mutational load upon induction of oxidative stress and that mutations arise in a slowly accumulative fashion. The effect of non-functional XPC in vivo upon oxidative stress exposure appears to have implications in mutagenesis, which can contribute to the carcinogenesis process. The levels and rate of mutagenesis upon oxidative stress correlate with previous findings that lung tumors in Xpc(-/-) mice overall arise late in the lifespan and that the incidence of internal tumors in XP-C patients is relatively low in comparison to skin cancer incidence.

Nucleotide excision repair activity on DNA damage induced by photoactivated methylene blue

The nucleotide excision repair (NER) mechanism is well known to be involved in the removal of UV-induced lesions. Nevertheless, the involvement of this pathway in the repair of lesions generated after DNA oxidation remains controversial. The effects of visible-light-excited methylene blue (MB), known to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), were examined directly in xeroderma pigmentosum (XP)-A and XP-C NER-deficient human fibroblasts. Initially, MB was confirmed as being incorporated in similar amounts by the cells and that its photoexcitation induces the generation of (1)O2 within cells. The analysis of cell survival indicated that NER-deficient cells were hypersensitive to photoactivated MB. This sensitivity was confirmed with cells silenced for the XPC gene and by host-cell reactivation (HCR) of plasmid exposed to the photosensitizing effects of photoexcited MB. The sensitivity detected by HCR was restored in complemented cells, confirming the participation of XPA and XPC proteins in the repair of DNA lesions induced by photosensitized MB. Furthermore, DNA damage (single- and double-strand breaks and alkali-sensitive sites) was observed in the nuclei of treated cells by alkaline comet assay, with higher frequency of lesions in NER-deficient than in NER-proficient cells. Likewise, NER-deficient cells also presented more γ-H2AX-stained nuclei and G2/M arrest after photoactivated MB treatment, probably as a consequence of DNA damage response. Notwithstanding, the kinetics of both alkali- and FPG-sensitive sites repair were similar among cells, thereby demonstrating not only that MB photoexcitation generates nuclear DNA damage, but also that the removal of these lesions is NER-independent. Therefore, this work provides further evidence that XPA and XPC proteins have specific roles in cell protection and repair/tolerance of ROS-induced DNA damage. Moreover, as XPC-deficient patients do not present neurodegeneration, premature aging, or developmental clinical symptoms, the results indicate that defects in the repair/tolerance of oxidatively generated DNA lesions are not sufficient to explain these severe clinical features of certain XP patients.

Host cell reactivation of gene expression for an adenovirus-encoded reporter gene reflects the repair of UVC-induced cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers and methylene blue plus visible light-induced 8-oxoguanine

Previously, we have reported the use of a recombinant adenovirus (Ad)-based host cell reactivation (HCR) assay to examine nucleotide excision repair (NER) of UVC-induced DNA lesions in several mammalian cell types. The recombinant non-replicating Ad expresses the Escherichia coli β-galactosidase (β-gal) reporter gene under control of the cytomegalovirus immediate-early enhancer region. We have also used methylene blue plus visible light (MB + VL) to induce the major oxidative lesion 7,8-dihydro-8-oxoguanine (8-oxoG) in the recombinant Ad-encoded reporter gene in order to study base excision repair (BER). The reported variability regarding 8-oxoG's potential to block transcription by RNA polymerase II and data demonstrating that a number of factors play a role in transcriptional bypass of the lesion led us to examine the repair of 8-oxoG in the Ad reporter and its relationship to HCR for expression of the reporter gene. We have used Southern blotting to examine removal of UVC- and MB + VL-induced DNA damage by loss of endonuclease-sensitive sites from the Ad-encoded β-gal reporter gene in human and rodent cells. We show that repair of MB + VL-induced 8-oxoG via BER and UVC-induced cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) via NER is substantially greater in human SV40-transformed GM637F skin fibroblasts compared to hamster CHO-AA8 cells. We also show that HCR for expression of the MB + VL-damaged and the UVC-damaged reporter gene is substantially greater in human SV40-transformed GM637F skin fibroblasts compared to hamster CHO-AA8 cells. The difference between the human and rodent cells in the removal of both 8-oxoG and CPDs from the damaged reporter gene was comparable to the difference in HCR for expression of the damaged reporter gene. These results suggest that the major factor for HCR of the MB + VL-treated reporter gene in mammalian cells is DNA repair in the Ad rather than lesion bypass.

Oxidative DNA damage and nucleotide excision repair

SIGNIFICANCE

Oxidative DNA damage is repaired by multiple, overlapping DNA repair pathways. Accumulating evidence supports the hypothesis that nucleotide excision repair (NER), besides base excision repair (BER), is also involved in neutralizing oxidative DNA damage.

RECENT ADVANCES

NER includes two distinct sub-pathways: transcription-coupled NER (TC-NER) and global genome repair (GG-NER). The CSA and CSB proteins initiate the onset of TC-NER. Recent findings show that not only CSB, but also CSA is involved in the repair of oxidative DNA lesions, in the nucleus as well as in mitochondria. The XPG protein is also of importance for the removal of oxidative DNA lesions, as it may enhance the initial step of BER. Substantial evidence exists that support a role for XPC in NER and BER. XPC deficiency not only results in decreased repair of oxidative lesions, but has also been linked to disturbed redox homeostasis.

CRITICAL ISSUES

The role of NER proteins in the regulation of the cellular response to oxidative (mitochondrial and nuclear) DNA damage may be the underlying mechanism of the pathology of accelerated aging in Cockayne syndrome patients, a driving force for internal cancer development in XP-A and XP-C patients, and a contributor to the mixed exhibited phenotypes of XP-G patients.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Accumulating evidence indicates that DNA repair factors can be involved in multiple DNA repair pathways. However, the distinct detailed mechanism and consequences of these additional functions remain to be elucidated and can possibly shine a light on clinically related issues.

Reduced host cell reactivation of oxidatively damaged DNA in ageing human fibroblasts

Many reports have linked oxidative damage to DNA and the associated avoidance and/or repair processes to carcinogenesis, ageing and neurodegeneration. Cancer incidence increases with age and there is evidence that oxidative stress plays a role in human ageing and neurodegeneration. Several reports have suggested that the accumulation of unrepaired DNA lesions plays a causal role in mammalian ageing. Since base excision repair (BER) is the main pathway for the repair of oxidative DNA lesions, the relationship of BER to human ageing and carcinogenesis is of considerable interest. The aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between donor age and increasing time of cells in tissue culture and the repair of oxidative DNA damage in primary human skin fibroblasts. Methylene blue (MB) acts as a photosensitizer and after excitation by visible light (VL) produces reactive oxygen species that result in oxidative damage to DNA. MB+VL produce predominantly 8-hydroxyguanine as well as other single base modifications in DNA that are repaired by BER. We used host cell reactivation (HCR) of a non-replicating recombinant human adenovirus, Ad5CMVlacZ, which expresses the β-galactosidase (β-gal) reporter gene, to measure BER of MB+VL-damaged DNA. HCR of β-gal activity for the MB+VL-treated reporter gene was examined in 10 fibroblast strains from normal donors of ages 2 to 82. The effect of cell passage number on HCR was also examined in human skin fibroblasts from 2 normal donors. We found a significant reduction in HCR with increasing cell passage number, indicating that BER decreases with increasing time of cells grown in tissue culture. We also found a significant correlation of donor age with HCR of the MB+VL-treated reporter gene for high passage number, but not for low passage number fibroblasts. The present study provides evidence that a decrease in BER of oxidatively damaged DNA may play a role in carcinogenesis, ageing and neurodegeneration.

Nucleotide excision repair-initiating proteins bind to oxidative DNA lesions in vivo

In vivo imaging reveals that CSB and XPC promote the repair of oxidative DNA lesions independent of the canonical nucleotide excision repair process.

Base excision repair (BER) is the main repair pathway to eliminate abundant oxidative DNA lesions such as 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine. Recent data suggest that the key transcription-coupled nucleotide excision repair factor (TC-NER) Cockayne syndrome group B (CSB) and the global genome NER-initiating factor XPC are implicated in the protection of cells against oxidative DNA damages. Our novel live-cell imaging approach revealed a strong and very rapid recruitment of XPC and CSB to sites of oxidative DNA lesions in living cells. The absence of detectable accumulation of downstream NER factors at the site of local oxidative DNA damage provide the first in vivo indication of the involvement of CSB and XPC in the repair of oxidative DNA lesions independent of the remainder of the NER reaction. Interestingly, CSB exhibited different and transcription-dependent kinetics in the two compartments studied (nucleolus and nucleoplasm), suggesting a direct transcription-dependent involvement of CSB in the repair of oxidative lesions associated with different RNA polymerases but not involving other NER proteins.

The role of DNA repair in the pluripotency and differentiation of human stem cells

All living cells utilize intricate DNA repair mechanisms to address numerous types of DNA lesions and to preserve genomic integrity, and pluripotent stem cells have specific needs due to their remarkable ability of self-renewal and differentiation into different functional cell types. Not surprisingly, human stem cells possess a highly efficient DNA repair network that becomes less efficient upon differentiation. Moreover, these cells also have an anaerobic metabolism, which reduces the mitochondria number and the likelihood of oxidative stress, which is highly related to genomic instability. If DNA lesions are not repaired, human stem cells easily undergo senescence, cell death or differentiation, as part of their DNA damage response, avoiding the propagation of stem cells carrying mutations and genomic alterations. Interestingly, cancer stem cells and typical stem cells share not only the differentiation potential but also their capacity to respond to DNA damage, with important implications for cancer therapy using genotoxic agents. On the other hand, the preservation of the adult stem cell pool, and the ability of cells to deal with DNA damage, is essential for normal development, reducing processes of neurodegeneration and premature aging, as one can observe on clinical phenotypes of many human genetic diseases with defects in DNA repair processes. Finally, several recent findings suggest that DNA repair also plays a fundamental role in maintaining the pluripotency and differentiation potential of embryonic stem cells, as well as that of induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells. DNA repair processes also seem to be necessary for the reprogramming of human cells when iPS cells are produced. Thus, the understanding of how cultured pluripotent stem cells ensure the genetic stability are highly relevant for their safe therapeutic application, at the same time that cellular therapy is a hope for DNA repair deficient patients.

Photoinduced damage to cellular DNA: direct and photosensitized reactions

The survey focuses on recent aspects of photochemical reactions to cellular DNA that are implicated through the predominant formation of mostly bipyrimidine photoproducts in deleterious effects of human exposure to sunlight. Recent developments in analytical methods have allowed accurate and quantitative measurements of the main DNA photoproducts in cells and human skin. Highly mutagenic CC and CT bipyrimidine photoproducts, including cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers and pyrimidine (6-4) pyrimidone photoproducts (6-4PPs) are generated in low yields with respect to TT and TC photoproducts. Another striking finding deals with the formation of Dewar valence isomers, the third class of bipyrimidine photoproducts that is accounted for by UVA-mediated isomerization of initially UVB generated 6-4PPs. Cyclobutadithymine (T<>T) has been unambiguously shown to be involved in the genotoxicity of UVA radiation. Thus, T<>T is formed in UVA-irradiated cellular DNA according to a direct excitation mechanism with a higher efficiency than oxidatively generated DNA damage that arises mostly through the Type II photosensitization mechanism. C<>C and C<>T are repaired at rates intermediate between those of T<>T and 6-4TT. Evidence has been also provided for the occurrence of photosensitized reactions mediated by exogenous agents that act either in an independent way or through photodynamic effects.

Role of nucleotide excision repair proteins in oxidative DNA damage repair: an updating

DNA repair is a crucial factor in maintaining a low steady-state level of oxidative DNA damage. Base excision repair (BER) has an important role in preventing the deleterious effects of oxidative DNA damage, but recent evidence points to the involvement of several repair pathways in this process. Oxidative damage may arise from endogenous and exogenous sources and may target nuclear and mitochondrial DNA as well as RNA and proteins. The importance of preventing mutations associated with oxidative damage is shown by a direct association between defects in BER (i.e. MYH DNA glycosylase) and colorectal cancer, but it is becoming increasingly evident that damage by highly reactive oxygen species plays also central roles in aging and neurodegeneration. Mutations in genes of the nucleotide excision repair (NER) pathway are associated with diseases, such as xeroderma pigmentosum and Cockayne syndrome, that involve increased skin cancer and/or developmental and neurological symptoms. In this review we will provide an updating of the current evidence on the involvement of NER factors in the control of oxidative DNA damage and will attempt to address the issue of whether this unexpected role may unlock the difficult puzzle of the pathogenesis of these syndromes.

The role of XPC: implications in cancer and oxidative DNA damage

The accumulation of DNA damage is a slow but hazardous phenomenon that may lead to cell death, accelerated aging features and cancer. One of the most versatile and important defense mechanisms against the accumulation of DNA damage is nucleotide excision repair (NER), in which the Xeroderma pigmentosum group C (XPC) protein plays a prominent role. NER can be divided into global genome repair (GG-NER) and transcription coupled repair (TC-NER). XPC is a key factor in GG-NER where it functions in DNA damage recognition and after which the repair machinery is recruited to eliminate the DNA damage. Defective XPC functioning has been shown to result in a cancer prone phenotype, in human as well as in mice. Mutation accumulation in XPC deficient mice is accelerated and increased, resulting in an increased tumor incidence. More recently XPC has also been linked to functions outside of NER since XPC deficient mice show a divergent tumor spectrum compared to other NER deficient mouse models. Multiple in vivo and in vitro experiments indicate that XPC appears to be involved in the initiation of several DNA damage-induced cellular responses. XPC seems to function in the removal of oxidative DNA damage, redox homeostasis and cell cycle control. We hypothesize that this combination of increased oxidative DNA damage sensitivity, disturbed redox homeostasis together with inefficient cell cycle control mechanisms are causes of the observed increased cancer susceptibility in oxygen exposed tissues. Such a phenotype is absent in other NER-deficient mice, including Xpa.

Early host cell reactivation of an oxidatively damaged adenovirus-encoded reporter gene requires the Cockayne syndrome proteins CSA and CSB

Reduced host cell reactivation (HCR) of a reporter gene containing 8-oxoguanine (8-oxoG) lesions in Cockayne syndrome (CS) fibroblasts has previously been attributed to increased 8-oxoG-mediated inhibition of transcription resulting from a deficiency in repair. This interpretation has been challenged by a report suggesting reduced expression from an 8-oxoG containing reporter gene occurs in all cells by a mechanism involving gene inactivation by 8-oxoG DNA glycosylase and this inactivation is strongly enhanced in the absence of the CS group B (CSB) protein. The observation of reduced gene expression in the absence of CSB protein led to speculation that decreased HCR in CS cells results from enhanced gene inactivation rather than reduced gene reactivation. Using an adenovirus-based β-galactosidase (β-gal) reporter gene assay, we have examined the effect of methylene blue plus visible light (MB + VL)-induced 8-oxoG lesions on the time course of gene expression in normal and CSA and CSB mutant human SV40-transformed fibroblasts, repair proficient and CSB mutant Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells and normal mouse embryo fibroblasts. We demonstrate that MB + VL treatment of the reporter leads to reduced expression of the damaged β-gal reporter relative to control at early time points following infection in all cells, consistent with in vivo inhibition of RNA polII-mediated transcription. In addition, we have demonstrated HCR of reporter gene expression occurs in all cell types examined. A significant reduction in the rate of gene reactivation in human SV40-transformed cells lacking functional CSA or CSB compared to normal cells was found. Similarly, a significant reduction in the rate of reactivation in CHO cells lacking functional CSB (CHO-UV61) was observed compared to the wild-type parental counterpart (CHO-AA8). The data presented demonstrate that expression of an oxidatively damaged reporter gene is reactivated over time and that CSA and CSB are required for normal reactivation.

Real-time quantification of Xeroderma pigmentosum mRNA from the mammalian cochlea

OBJECTIVE

Human mutations in the DNA repair genes, Xeroderma pigmentosum (XP)-C and XPA result in hearing loss, which has fueled the hypothesis that there is a significant demand for these genes in protecting cochlear genetic material. Therefore, we quantified the level of XPC and XPA mRNA in the mammalian cochlea.

DESIGN

XPC and XPA mRNAs were purified from the cochlea of 15 Fischer344 rats and quantified using SYBR Green chemistry. Another 15 Fischer344 rats were sacrificed for immunolocalization of XPC and XPA polypeptides in the cochlea and kidney (control organ).

RESULTS

XP mRNA levels were up to 95% (XPA) and 69% (XPC) of the respective maximum expression capacity of each gene. In addition, these cochlear levels were up to sixfold (XPC) and threefold (XPA) greater than that of the kidney, which is known to exhibit XP-DNA repair activity that is greater than most organs of the body. Immunohistochemistry revealed that most kidney and cochlear cells were immunopositive.

CONCLUSION

These data suggest that under normal conditions the cochlea is experiencing persistent genomic stress that helps to explain the hypersensitivity of the cochlea to exogenous stressors (ototoxic xenobiotics and/or acoustic-overexposure) as well as provide a basis to interpret hearing loss among patients with XP.

XPC silencing sensitizes glioma cells to arsenic trioxide via increased oxidative damage

Arsenic exerts its cytotoxicity via the generation of reactive oxygen species and inhibition of DNA repair. How arsenic disturbs oxidative DNA damage repair is, however, unclear. We found that arsenic trioxide (ATO), like ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, induced the expression of xeroderma pigmentosum group C (XPC) but not of xeroderma pigmentosum A in a human glioma cell line, U87. To explore the role of XPC in the toxic effects of ATO, small interfering RNA was used to silence XPC (siXPC) in U87 cells. siXPC cells were more susceptible to UV irradiation and ATO-induced cell death than control cells. Increased siXPC cell death induced by ATO was accompanied by increased senescence and autophagy. Because increased DNA strand breaks in siXPC cells were observed only when cells were concomitantly treated with ATO and DNA repair inhibitors, XPC silencing apparently did not interfere with repair of ATO-induced DNA damage. Although intracellular ROS levels were not significantly enhanced in siXPC cells, ATO treatment did result in increased 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine and hyperoxidized peroxiredoxin. Enhanced superoxide production and autophagy by ATO in siXPC cells were suppressed by co-incubation with N-acetylcysteine (NAC). Furthermore, XPC silencing caused decreased glutathione levels and increased catalase and Mn-superoxide dismutase activities. Increased catalase activity in siXPC cells was suppressed by ATO treatment. XPC silencing also enhanced reporter activity of activator protein-1, whereas enhanced activity was suppressed by NAC. Taken together, our results indicate that XPC silencing causes increased ATO susceptibility by disturbing redox homeostasis rather than reducing DNA repair.

Progeroid syndromes and UV-induced oxidative DNA damage

Progeroid syndromes are a group of diseases characterized by signs of premature aging. These syndromes comprise diseases such as Werner syndrome, Bloom syndrome, Rothmund-Thomson syndrome, Hutchinson-Gilford syndrome, Fanconi anemia, and ataxia-telangiectasia, as well as xeroderma pigmentosum, trichothiodystrophy, and Cockayne syndrome. Clinical symptoms of premature aging are skin atrophy with loss of cutaneous elasticity, dysfunction of cutaneous appendices, degeneration of the central nervous system and an increased susceptibility for malignant tumors. Genetic defects in the repair of DNA damage can lead to progeroid syndromes, and it is becoming increasingly evident that direct DNA damage and indirect damage by highly reactive oxygen species play central roles in aging. The clinical signs of progeroid syndromes and the molecular aspects of UV (ultraviolet radiation)-induced oxidative stress in aging are discussed.Journal of Investigative Dermatology Symposium Proceedings (2009) 14, 8-14; doi:10.1038/jidsymp.2009.6.

Expression of an adenovirus encoded reporter gene and its reactivation following UVC and oxidative damage in cultured fish cells

PURPOSE

Recombinant human adenovirus, AdCA35lacZ, was used to examine expression of a reporter gene and its reactivation following UVC (200-280 nm) and oxidative damage in fish cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

AdCA35lacZ is a recombinant nonreplicating human adenovirus, which expresses the beta-galactosidase (beta-gal) reporter gene. UVC light produces DNA damage repaired by nucleotide excision repair (NER). In contrast, methylene blue plus visible light (MB+VL) produces oxidative DNA damage, mainly 8-oxoguanine, that is repaired by base excision repair (BER). We examined expression of the reporter gene and host cell reactivation (HCR) of the UVC-treated and MB+VL-treated reporter gene in fish cells.

RESULTS

AdCA35lacZ infection of Chinook salmon cells (CHSE-214), eel cells (PBLE) and four rainbow trout cell lines (RTG-2, RT-Gill, RTS-34st and RTS-pBk), but not zebrafish (ZEB) or carp (EPC) cells resulted in expression of beta-gal. HCR of UVC-treated AdCA35lacZ in fish cells varied from that obtained in NER-deficient xeroderma pigmentosum group A fibroblasts to greater than that for NER-proficient normal human fibroblasts. HCR of UVC-treated AdCA35lacZ correlated with beta-gal expression levels for untreated AdCA35lacZ. Exposure of cells to fluorescent light (400-700 nm) increased expression of the undamaged reporter gene in normal human fibroblasts and in all fish cells except PBLE and increased HCR of the UVC-damaged reporter gene in fish cells but not in human fibroblasts. HCR of the MB + VL-treated reporter gene was similar to that in human cells for PBLE, CHSE-214, RTG-2 and RTS-pBk, but was reduced in RT-Gill and RTS-34st cells.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate the detection of functional photoreactivation (PR) of UVC-induced DNA damage in fish cells but not in normal human fibroblasts and a link between NER and transcription of the reporter gene in the fish cells in the absence of PR. We show also efficient BER of the reporter gene in several fish cell lines.

Clinical implications of the basic defects in Cockayne syndrome and xeroderma pigmentosum and the DNA lesions responsible for cancer, neurodegeneration and aging

Cancer, aging, and neurodegeneration are all associated with DNA damage and repair in complex fashions. Aging appears to be a cell and tissue-wide process linked to the insulin-dependent pathway in several DNA repair deficient disorders, especially in mice. Cancer and neurodegeneration appear to have complementary relationships to DNA damage and repair. Cancer arises from surviving cells, or even stem cells, that have down-regulated many pathways, including apoptosis, that regulate genomic stability in a multi-step process. Neurodegeneration however occurs in nondividing neurons in which the persistence of apoptosis in response to reactive oxygen species is, itself, pathological. Questions that remain open concern: sources and chemical nature of naturally occurring DNA damaging agents, especially whether mitochondria are the true source; the target tissues for DNA damage and repair; do the human DNA repair deficient diseases delineate specific pathways of DNA damage relevant to clinical outcomes; if naturally occurring reactive oxygen species are pathological in human repair deficient disease, would anti-oxidants or anti-apoptotic agents be feasible therapeutic agent?

Depletion of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 reduces host cell reactivation of a UV-damaged adenovirus-encoded reporter gene in human dermal fibroblasts

In response to ultraviolet radiation (UV), mammalian cells rapidly activate a nuclear enzyme poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP), and we recently showed that one of the causes for PARP-activation is UV-induced direct DNA photolesions which are repaired by nucleotide excision repair process (NER). To determine whether PARP can play a role in NER, we stably depleted PARP in NER-proficient human skin fibroblasts GM637 by DNA vector-based RNAi. In these cells, we examined host cell reactivation (HCR) of UVB or UVC-irradiated recombinant adenovirus AdCA35lacZ, encoding a beta-galactosidase (beta-gal) reporter gene. The depletion of PARP decreased the HCR of UVB- or UVC-damaged reporter gene to a similar extent, indicating the role of PARP in NER. Moreover, PARP-depletion reduced the HCR capacity of the NER-competent GM637 cells to a level closer to that in the XP-C and CS-B cell lines, which are deficient in the lesion recognition steps of the global genome repair (GGR) and transcription-coupled repair (TCR) sub-pathways of NER, respectively. In order to identify the potential role of PARP in these two sub-pathways of NER from that of its known role in base excision repair (BER) of UVB-induced oxidant damage, we depleted PARP from XP-C and CS-B cells and examined HCR of the reporter gene damaged by UVB, UVC or photoactivated methylene blue, the latter causing predominantly 8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine damage that is repaired by BER. Interestingly, a decreased HCR due to PARP-depletion was observed in both the NER-deficient cell lines in response to virus damaged by these three agents, albeit with different kinetics from 12 to 44h after infection. The role of PARP in NER was highlighted by a decreased clonogenic survival of UV-irradiated NER-competent GM637 cells depleted of PARP. Our results, while confirming the role of PARP in base excision repair, suggest a novel role of PARP in both the GGR and TCR sub-pathways of NER.