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Ciechanowska A, Mika J. CC Chemokine Family Members' Modulation as a Novel Approach for Treating Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System Injury-A Review of Clinical and Experimental Findings. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:3788. [PMID: 38612597 PMCID: PMC11011591 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25073788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2024] [Revised: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Despite significant progress in modern medicine and pharmacology, damage to the nervous system with various etiologies still poses a challenge to doctors and scientists. Injuries lead to neuroimmunological changes in the central nervous system (CNS), which may result in both secondary damage and the development of tactile and thermal hypersensitivity. In our review, based on the analysis of many experimental and clinical studies, we indicate that the mechanisms occurring both at the level of the brain after direct damage and at the level of the spinal cord after peripheral nerve damage have a common immunological basis. This suggests that there are opportunities for similar pharmacological therapeutic interventions in the damage of various etiologies. Experimental data indicate that after CNS/PNS damage, the levels of 16 among the 28 CC-family chemokines, i.e., CCL1, CCL2, CCL3, CCL4, CCL5, CCL6, CCL7, CCL8, CCL9, CCL11, CCL12, CCL17, CCL19, CCL20, CCL21, and CCL22, increase in the brain and/or spinal cord and have strong proinflammatory and/or pronociceptive effects. According to the available literature data, further investigation is still needed for understanding the role of the remaining chemokines, especially six of them which were found in humans but not in mice/rats, i.e., CCL13, CCL14, CCL15, CCL16, CCL18, and CCL23. Over the past several years, the results of studies in which available pharmacological tools were used indicated that blocking individual receptors, e.g., CCR1 (J113863 and BX513), CCR2 (RS504393, CCX872, INCB3344, and AZ889), CCR3 (SB328437), CCR4 (C021 and AZD-2098), and CCR5 (maraviroc, AZD-5672, and TAK-220), has beneficial effects after damage to both the CNS and PNS. Recently, experimental data have proved that blockades exerted by double antagonists CCR1/3 (UCB 35625) and CCR2/5 (cenicriviroc) have very good anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive effects. In addition, both single (J113863, RS504393, SB328437, C021, and maraviroc) and dual (cenicriviroc) chemokine receptor antagonists enhanced the analgesic effect of opioid drugs. This review will display the evidence that a multidirectional strategy based on the modulation of neuronal-glial-immune interactions can significantly improve the health of patients after CNS and PNS damage by changing the activity of chemokines belonging to the CC family. Moreover, in the case of pain, the combined administration of such antagonists with opioid drugs could reduce therapeutic doses and minimize the risk of complications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joanna Mika
- Department of Pain Pharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Str., 31-343 Kraków, Poland;
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2
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Wu D, Zhong S, Du H, Han S, Wei X, Gong Q. MiR-184-5p represses neuropathic pain by regulating CCL1/CCR8 signaling interplay in the spinal cord in diabetic mice. Neurol Res 2024; 46:54-64. [PMID: 37842802 DOI: 10.1080/01616412.2023.2257454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2023] [Accepted: 06/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Diabetic neuropathic pain (DNP) is a serious complication for diabetic patients involving nervous system. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small-noncoding RNAs which are dysregulated in neuropathic pain, and might be critical molecules for pain treatment. Our previous study has shown miR-184-5p was significantly downregulated in DNP. Therefore, the mechanism of miR-184-5p in DNP was investigated in this study. METHODS A DNP model was established through streptozotocin (STZ). The pharmacological tools were injected intrathecally, and pain behavior was evaluated by paw withdrawal mechanical thresholds (PWMTs). Bioinformatics analysis, Dual-luciferase reporter assay and fluorescence-in-situ-hybridization (FISH) were used to seek and confirm the potential target genes of miR-184-5p. The expression of relative genes and proteins was analyzed by quantitative reverse transcriptase real-time PCR (qPCR) and western blotting. RESULTS MiR-184-5p expression was down-regulated in spinal dorsal on days 7 and 14 after STZ, while intrathecal administration of miR-184-5p agomir attenuates neuropathic pain induced by DNP and intrathecal miR-184-5p antagomir induces pain behaviors in naïve mice. Chemokine CC motif ligand 1 (CCL1) was found to be a potential target of miR-184-5p and the protein expression of CCL1 and the mRNA expression of CCR8 were up-regulated in spinal dorsal on days 7 and 14 after STZ. The luciferase reporter assay and FISH demonstrated that CCL1 is a direct target of miR-184-5p. MiR-184-5p overexpression attenuated the expression of CCL1/CCR8 in DNP; intrathecal miR-184-5p antagomir increased the expression of CCL1/CCR8 in spinal dorsal of naïve mice. CONCLUSION This research illustrates that miR-184-5p alleviates DNP through the inhibition of CCL1/CCR8 signaling expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danlei Wu
- Department of Pain Medicine, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shuotao Zhong
- Department of Pain Medicine, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Huiying Du
- Department of Anesthesiology, Guangdong Women and Children Hospital, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shuang Han
- Department of Physiology and Pain Research Center, Zhongshan Medical School, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xuhong Wei
- Department of Physiology and Pain Research Center, Zhongshan Medical School, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qingjuan Gong
- Department of Pain Medicine, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
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Grabarczyk M, Ksiazek-Winiarek D, Glabinski A, Szpakowski P. Dietary Polyphenols Decrease Chemokine Release by Human Primary Astrocytes Responding to Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2294. [PMID: 37765263 PMCID: PMC10537369 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15092294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 08/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Astrocytes are considered to be the dominant cell fraction of the central nervous system. They play a supportive and protective role towards neurons, and regulate inflammatory processes; they thus make suitable targets for drugs and supplements, such as polyphenolic compounds. However, due to their wide range, knowledge of their anti-inflammatory potential remains relatively incomplete. The aim of this study was therefore to determine whether myricetin and chrysin are able to decrease chemokine release in reactive astrocytes. To assess the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential of polyphenols, human primary astrocytes were cultured in the presence of a reactive and neurotoxic astrocyte-inducing cytokine mixture (TNF-α, IL-1a, C1q), either alone or in the presence of myricetin or chrysin. The examined polyphenols were able to modify the secretion of chemokines by human cortical astrocytes, especially CCL5 (chrysin), CCL1 (myricetin) and CCL2 (both), while cell viability was not affected. Surprisingly, the compounds did not demonstrate any antioxidant properties in the astrocyte cultures.
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Dermitzakis I, Manthou ME, Meditskou S, Tremblay MÈ, Petratos S, Zoupi L, Boziki M, Kesidou E, Simeonidou C, Theotokis P. Origin and Emergence of Microglia in the CNS-An Interesting (Hi)story of an Eccentric Cell. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2023; 45:2609-2628. [PMID: 36975541 PMCID: PMC10047736 DOI: 10.3390/cimb45030171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Revised: 03/19/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia belong to tissue-resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS), representing the primary innate immune cells. This cell type constitutes ~7% of non-neuronal cells in the mammalian brain and has a variety of biological roles integral to homeostasis and pathophysiology from the late embryonic to adult brain. Its unique identity that distinguishes its "glial" features from tissue-resident macrophages resides in the fact that once entering the CNS, it is perennially exposed to a unique environment following the formation of the blood-brain barrier. Additionally, tissue-resident macrophage progenies derive from various peripheral sites that exhibit hematopoietic potential, and this has resulted in interpretation issues surrounding their origin. Intensive research endeavors have intended to track microglial progenitors during development and disease. The current review provides a corpus of recent evidence in an attempt to disentangle the birthplace of microglia from the progenitor state and underlies the molecular elements that drive microgliogenesis. Furthermore, it caters towards tracking the lineage spatiotemporally during embryonic development and outlining microglial repopulation in the mature CNS. This collection of data can potentially shed light on the therapeutic potential of microglia for CNS perturbations across various levels of severity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iasonas Dermitzakis
- Department of Histology-Embryology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Maria Eleni Manthou
- Department of Histology-Embryology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Soultana Meditskou
- Department of Histology-Embryology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Marie-Ève Tremblay
- Division of Medical Sciences, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada
| | - Steven Petratos
- Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia
| | - Lida Zoupi
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences & Simons Initiative for the Developing Brain, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, UK
| | - Marina Boziki
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology and Neuroimmunology, Second Department of Neurology, AHEPA University Hospital, 54621 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Evangelia Kesidou
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology and Neuroimmunology, Second Department of Neurology, AHEPA University Hospital, 54621 Thessaloniki, Greece
- Laboratory of Experimental Physiology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Constantina Simeonidou
- Laboratory of Experimental Physiology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Paschalis Theotokis
- Department of Histology-Embryology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology and Neuroimmunology, Second Department of Neurology, AHEPA University Hospital, 54621 Thessaloniki, Greece
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Ding D, Zhang L, Liu X, Sun C, He J, Li J, Gao X, Guan F, Zhang L. Chemokine CCL18 Promotes Phagocytosis Through Its Receptor CCR8 Rather than PITPNM3 in Human Microglial Cells. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2022; 42:19-28. [PMID: 35041514 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2021.0123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
CCL18 is a CC chemokine that exhibits diverse functions through interaction with various cell subsets with both proinflammatory anti-inflammatory properties through its receptors CCR8 (CC chemokine receptor 8) and PITPNM3 (phosphatidylinositol transfer protein 3). However, the function of CCL18 in microglia remains unclear. In this study, we show that CCL18 did not change the expression of the inflammatory factors, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), or inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), but significantly induced expression of the macrophage markers, MRC-1 and ARG-1 M2, in a human microglial clone 3 cell line (HMC3). Phagocytosis by HMC3 cells was significantly enhanced in the presence of CCL18, indicated by uptake of amyloid-β and dextran. CCR8 and PITPNM3 were both expressed on HMC3 cells, but selective knockdown of CCR8 and PITPNM3 showed that only the former played a dominant role in phagocytosis of HMC3 through the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB)/Src signaling pathway. Our results suggest that CCL18 could have anti-inflammatory activity and activate the phagocytic function of microglia, which is involved in neural development, homeostasis, and repair mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dengfeng Ding
- Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, National Health Commission of China (NHC), Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Peking Union Medicine College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Li Zhang
- Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Diseases, Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Peking Union Medicine College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xu Liu
- Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, National Health Commission of China (NHC), Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Peking Union Medicine College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Caixian Sun
- Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Diseases, Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Peking Union Medicine College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jiayue He
- Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Diseases, Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Peking Union Medicine College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jingwen Li
- Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, National Health Commission of China (NHC), Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Peking Union Medicine College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiang Gao
- Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, National Health Commission of China (NHC), Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Peking Union Medicine College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Feifei Guan
- Beijing Engineering Research Center for Experimental Animal Models of Human Diseases, Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Peking Union Medicine College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Lianfeng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, National Health Commission of China (NHC), Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, Peking Union Medicine College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China.,Neuroscience Center, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
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Hammond BP, Manek R, Kerr BJ, Macauley MS, Plemel JR. Regulation of microglia population dynamics throughout development, health, and disease. Glia 2021; 69:2771-2797. [PMID: 34115410 DOI: 10.1002/glia.24047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Revised: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The dynamic expansions and contractions of the microglia population in the central nervous system (CNS) to achieve homeostasis are likely vital for their function. Microglia respond to injury or disease but also help guide neurodevelopment, modulate neural circuitry throughout life, and direct regeneration. Throughout these processes, microglia density changes, as does the volume of area that each microglia surveys. Given that microglia are responsible for sensing subtle alterations to their environment, a change in their density could affect their capacity to mobilize rapidly. In this review, we attempt to synthesize the current literature on the ligands and conditions that promote microglial proliferation across development, adulthood, and neurodegenerative conditions. Microglia display an impressive proliferative capacity during development and in neurodegenerative diseases that is almost completely absent at homeostasis. However, the appropriate function of microglia in each state is critically dependent on density fluctuations that are primarily induced by proliferation. Proliferation is a natural microglial response to insult and often serves neuroprotective functions. In contrast, inappropriate microglial proliferation, whether too much or too little, often precipitates undesirable consequences for nervous system health. Thus, fluctuations in the microglia population are tightly regulated to ensure these immune cells can execute their diverse functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brady P Hammond
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Rupali Manek
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Bradley J Kerr
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Anesthesiology & Pain Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Matthew S Macauley
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jason R Plemel
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Medicine, Division of Neurology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
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7
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McGregor BA, Schommer J, Guo K, Raihan MO, Ghribi O, Hur J, Porter JE. Alpha-Synuclein-induced DNA Methylation and Gene Expression in Microglia. Neuroscience 2021; 468:186-198. [PMID: 34082066 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2021.05.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Synucleinopathy disorders are characterized by aggregates of α-synuclein (α-syn), which engage microglia to elicit a neuroinflammatory response. Here, we determined the gene expression and DNA methylation changes in microglia induced by aggregate α-syn. Transgenic murine Thy-1 promoter (mThy1)-Asyn mice overexpressing human α-syn are a model of synucleinopathy. Microglia from 3 and 13-month-old mice were used to isolate nucleic acids for methylated DNA and RNA-sequencing. α-Syn-regulated changes in gene expression and genomic methylation were determined and examined for functional enrichment followed by network analysis to further elucidate possible connections within the data. Microglial DNA isolated from our 3-month cohort had 5315 differentially methylated gene (DMG) changes, while RNA levels demonstrated a change in 119 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between mThy1-Asyn mice and wild-type littermate controls. The 3-month DEGs and DMGs were highly associated with adhesion and migration signaling, suggesting a phenotypic transition from resting to active microglia. We observed 3742 DMGs and 3766 DEGs in 13-month mThy1-Asyn mice. These genes were often related to adhesion, migration, cell cycle, cellular metabolism, and immune response. Network analysis also showed increased cell mobility and inflammatory functions at 3 months, shifting to cell cycle, immune response, and metabolism changes at 13 months. We observed significant α-syn-induced methylation and gene expression changes in microglia. Our data suggest that α-syn overexpression initiates microglial activation leading to neuroinflammation and cellular metabolic stresses, which is associated with disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett A McGregor
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of North Dakota School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA
| | - Jared Schommer
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of North Dakota School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA
| | - Kai Guo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of North Dakota School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA
| | - Md Obayed Raihan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of North Dakota School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA
| | - Othman Ghribi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of North Dakota School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA
| | - Junguk Hur
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of North Dakota School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA.
| | - James E Porter
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of North Dakota School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Grand Forks, ND 58202, USA.
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García-Domínguez M, González-Rodríguez S, Hidalgo A, Baamonde A, Menéndez L. Kappa-opioid receptor-mediated thermal analgesia evoked by the intrathecal administration of the chemokine CCL1 in mice. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2021; 35:1109-1118. [PMID: 33905573 DOI: 10.1111/fcp.12685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The chemokine CC motif ligand 1 (CCL1) participates in immune cell recruitment and, as other chemokines, is also involved in nociceptive processing. In contrast with previous reports indicating its participation in allodynia and cold hypernociception when spinally administered, its ability to evoke heat thermal analgesia, mediated by circulating leukocytes and endocannabinoids, after systemic administration has recently been reported. OBJECTIVES Aiming to explore the role played by CCL1 on spinal nociception, we study here the effect of its intrathecal administration on thermal nociception in mice. METHODS Behavioral nociceptive assays, immunohistochemical experiments, white cell blood depletion procedures and qRT-PCR experiments were performed. RESULTS The intrathecal administration of CCL1 (0.3-30 ng) produced analgesia as measured by the unilateral hot plate test. This effect peaked 1 h after injection, was prevented by the CCR8 antagonist R243 and was accompanied by a reduction of c-Fos expression in spinal neurons. Whereas blood leukocyte depletion did not modify it, analgesia was abolished by the microglial inhibitor minocycline, but not the astroglial inhibitor aminoadipate. Furthermore, antinociception remained unmodified by the coadministration of cannabinoid type 1 or 2 receptors antagonists. However, it was reversed by naloxone but not by selective blockade of mu- or delta-opioid receptors. The inhibitory effect induced by the selective kappa-opioid receptor antagonist, nor-binaltorphimine, and by an anti-dynorphin A 1-17 antibody indicates that analgesia evoked by spinal CCL1 is mediated by endogenous dynorphins acting on kappa-opioid receptors. CONCLUSIONS Endogenous dynorphin and microglia behave as key players in heat thermal analgesia evoked by spinal CCL1 in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario García-Domínguez
- Laboratorio de Farmacología, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias (IUOPA), Universidad de Oviedo, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain
| | - Sara González-Rodríguez
- Laboratorio de Farmacología, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias (IUOPA), Universidad de Oviedo, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain
| | - Agustín Hidalgo
- Laboratorio de Farmacología, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias (IUOPA), Universidad de Oviedo, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain
| | - Ana Baamonde
- Laboratorio de Farmacología, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias (IUOPA), Universidad de Oviedo, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain
| | - Luis Menéndez
- Laboratorio de Farmacología, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias (IUOPA), Universidad de Oviedo, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain
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Sundaramoorthy V, Godde N, J. Farr R, Green D, M. Haynes J, Bingham J, O’Brien CM, Dearnley M. Modelling Lyssavirus Infections in Human Stem Cell-Derived Neural Cultures. Viruses 2020; 12:E359. [PMID: 32218146 PMCID: PMC7232326 DOI: 10.3390/v12040359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2019] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies is a zoonotic neurological infection caused by lyssavirus that continues to result in devastating loss of human life. Many aspects of rabies pathogenesis in human neurons are not well understood. Lack of appropriate ex-vivo models for studying rabies infection in human neurons has contributed to this knowledge gap. In this study, we utilize advances in stem cell technology to characterize rabies infection in human stem cell-derived neurons. We show key cellular features of rabies infection in our human neural cultures, including upregulation of inflammatory chemokines, lack of neuronal apoptosis, and axonal transmission of viruses in neuronal networks. In addition, we highlight specific differences in cellular pathogenesis between laboratory-adapted and field strain lyssavirus. This study therefore defines the first stem cell-derived ex-vivo model system to study rabies pathogenesis in human neurons. This new model system demonstrates the potential for enabling an increased understanding of molecular mechanisms in human rabies, which could lead to improved control methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinod Sundaramoorthy
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Australian Animal Health Laboratory (AAHL), East Geelong, VIC 3219, Australia; (V.S.); (N.G.); (R.J.F.); (D.G.); (J.B.)
| | - Nathan Godde
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Australian Animal Health Laboratory (AAHL), East Geelong, VIC 3219, Australia; (V.S.); (N.G.); (R.J.F.); (D.G.); (J.B.)
| | - Ryan J. Farr
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Australian Animal Health Laboratory (AAHL), East Geelong, VIC 3219, Australia; (V.S.); (N.G.); (R.J.F.); (D.G.); (J.B.)
| | - Diane Green
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Australian Animal Health Laboratory (AAHL), East Geelong, VIC 3219, Australia; (V.S.); (N.G.); (R.J.F.); (D.G.); (J.B.)
| | - John M. Haynes
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 399 Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia;
| | - John Bingham
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Australian Animal Health Laboratory (AAHL), East Geelong, VIC 3219, Australia; (V.S.); (N.G.); (R.J.F.); (D.G.); (J.B.)
| | - Carmel M. O’Brien
- CSIRO Manufacturing, Research Way, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia
- Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia
| | - Megan Dearnley
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Australian Animal Health Laboratory (AAHL), East Geelong, VIC 3219, Australia; (V.S.); (N.G.); (R.J.F.); (D.G.); (J.B.)
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10
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Puthenparampil M, Stropparo E, Zywicki S, Bovis F, Cazzola C, Federle L, Grassivaro F, Rinaldi F, Perini P, Sormani MP, Gallo P. Wide Cytokine Analysis in Cerebrospinal Fluid at Diagnosis Identified CCL-3 as a Possible Prognostic Factor for Multiple Sclerosis. Front Immunol 2020; 11:174. [PMID: 32194540 PMCID: PMC7066207 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Apart from IgG oligoclonal bands, no other biomarker has, to date, been validated for diagnostic and/or prognostic purposes in multiple sclerosis (MS). Aim: To investigate a wide panel of cytokines and chemokines in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS) patients and evaluate their association with clinical and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) parameters, as well as their predictive clinical value. Methods: Fifty-one RRMS at clinical onset and 17 other not inflammatory neurological disorders (ONINDs) underwent brain MRI (including 3D-T1, 3D-FLAIR, and 3-DIR sequences) and CSF examination. Eighty-seven cytokines and chemokines were analyzed in CSF by Multiplex technology. Results: Compared to ONIND, CXCL-10, CXCL-11, CXCL-13, CCL-1, CCL-2, CCL-3, CCL-22, IL-16, and BAFF were significantly (p < 0.05) increased in RRMS CSF. However, only CCL-3 was associated with both MS diagnosis and IgGOB detection. Based on a 95%CI in ONIND (cut-off value: 0.798 pg/ml) and ROC analysis (cut-off value: 0.495 pg/ml), RRMS patients were stratified in CCL-3high (>0.736 pg/mL), CCL-3medium, and CCL-3low (<0.495 pg/ml). Survival analysis disclosed a strong association between high CCL-3 values and disease reactivation (OR = 4.9, 95%CI: 1.8-13.3, p < 0.005) in the following 2 years. Conclusions: CCL-3 deserves further investigation as a candidate prognostic biomarker for RRMS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Puthenparampil
- Department of Neurosciences DNS, Multiple Sclerosis Centre, Università degli Studi di Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Erica Stropparo
- Department of Neurosciences DNS, Multiple Sclerosis Centre, Università degli Studi di Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Sofia Zywicki
- Department of Neurosciences DNS, Multiple Sclerosis Centre, Università degli Studi di Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Francesca Bovis
- Biostatistics Unit, Department of Health Sciences (DISSAL), University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Chiara Cazzola
- Department of Neurosciences DNS, Multiple Sclerosis Centre, Università degli Studi di Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Lisa Federle
- Multiple Sclerosis Centre, ULSS8 Berica, Ospedale San Bortolo, Vicenza, Italy
| | - Francesca Grassivaro
- Department of Neurosciences DNS, Multiple Sclerosis Centre, Università degli Studi di Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Francesca Rinaldi
- Department of Neurosciences DNS, Multiple Sclerosis Centre, Università degli Studi di Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Paola Perini
- Department of Neurosciences DNS, Multiple Sclerosis Centre, Università degli Studi di Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Maria Pia Sormani
- Biostatistics Unit, Department of Health Sciences (DISSAL), University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Paolo Gallo
- Department of Neurosciences DNS, Multiple Sclerosis Centre, Università degli Studi di Padova, Padua, Italy
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11
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The Systemic Administration of the Chemokine CCL1 Evokes Thermal Analgesia in Mice Through the Activation of the Endocannabinoid System. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2019; 39:1115-1124. [DOI: 10.1007/s10571-019-00706-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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12
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Jorda A, Cauli O, Santonja JM, Aldasoro M, Aldasoro C, Obrador E, Vila JM, Mauricio MD, Iradi A, Guerra-Ojeda S, Marchio P, Valles SL. Changes in Chemokines and Chemokine Receptors Expression in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease. Int J Biol Sci 2019; 15:453-463. [PMID: 30745834 PMCID: PMC6367555 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.26703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2018] [Accepted: 11/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The amyloid precursor protein plus presenilin-1 (APP/PS1) mice are a frequently-used model for Alzheimer's disease studies (AD). However, the data relevant to which proteins are involved in inflammatory mechanism are not sufficiently well-studied using the AD mouse model. Using behavioral studies, quantitative RT-PCR and Western-blot techniques, significant findings were determined by the expression of proteins involved in inflammation comparing APP/PS1 and Wild type mice. Increased GFAP expression could be associated with the elevation in number of reactive astrocytes. IL-3 is involved in inflammation and ABDF1 intervenes normally in the transport across cell membranes and both were found up-regulated in APP/PS1 mice compared to Wild type mice. Furthermore, CCR5 expression was decreased and both CCL3 and CCL4 chemokines were highly expressed indicating a possible gliosis and probably an increase in chemotaxis from lymphocytes and T cell generation. We also noted for the first time, a CCR8 increase expression with diminution of its CCL1 chemokine, both normally involved in protection from bacterial infection and demyelination. Control of inflammatory proteins will be the next step in understanding the progression of AD and also in determining the mechanisms that can develop in this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrián Jorda
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Valencia. Spain
| | - Omar Cauli
- Faculty of Surgery and Chiropody, University of Valencia. Spain
| | | | - Martin Aldasoro
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Valencia. Spain
| | - Constanza Aldasoro
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Valencia. Spain
| | - Elena Obrador
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Valencia. Spain
| | - Jose Ma Vila
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Valencia. Spain
| | | | - Antonio Iradi
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Valencia. Spain
| | - Sol Guerra-Ojeda
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Valencia. Spain
| | - Patricia Marchio
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Valencia. Spain
| | - Soraya L Valles
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Valencia. Spain
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13
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Wicher G, Wallenquist U, Lei Y, Enoksson M, Li X, Fuchs B, Abu Hamdeh S, Marklund N, Hillered L, Nilsson G, Forsberg-Nilsson K. Interleukin-33 Promotes Recruitment of Microglia/Macrophages in Response to Traumatic Brain Injury. J Neurotrauma 2017; 34:3173-3182. [PMID: 28490277 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2016.4900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a devastating condition, often leading to life-long consequences for patients. Even though modern neurointensive care has improved functional and cognitive outcomes, efficient pharmacological therapies are still lacking. Targeting peripherally derived, or resident inflammatory, cells that are rapid responders to brain injury is promising, but complex, given that the contribution of inflammation to exacerbation versus improved recovery varies with time post-injury. The injury-induced inflammatory response is triggered by release of alarmins, and in the present study we asked whether interleukin-33 (IL-33), an injury-associated nuclear alarmin, is involved in TBI. Here, we used samples from human TBI microdialysate, tissue sections from human TBI, and mouse models of central nervous system injury and found that expression of IL-33 in the brain was elevated from nondetectable levels, reaching a maximum after 72 h in both human samples and mouse models. Astrocytes and oligodendrocytes were the main producers of IL-33. Post-TBI, brains of mice deficient in the IL-33 receptor, ST2, contained fewer microglia/macrophages in the injured region than wild-type mice and had an altered cytokine/chemokine profile in response to injury. These observations indicate that IL-33 plays a role in neuroinflammation with microglia/macrophages being cellular targets for this interleukin post-TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grzegorz Wicher
- 1 Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Science for Life Laboratory, Rudbeck Laboratory, Uppsala University , Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ulrika Wallenquist
- 1 Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Science for Life Laboratory, Rudbeck Laboratory, Uppsala University , Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ying Lei
- 2 Department of Medicine, Immunology and Allergy Unit, Karolinska Institutet and Karolinska University Hospital , Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Mattias Enoksson
- 2 Department of Medicine, Immunology and Allergy Unit, Karolinska Institutet and Karolinska University Hospital , Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Xiaofei Li
- 1 Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Science for Life Laboratory, Rudbeck Laboratory, Uppsala University , Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Barbara Fuchs
- 2 Department of Medicine, Immunology and Allergy Unit, Karolinska Institutet and Karolinska University Hospital , Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sami Abu Hamdeh
- 3 Department of Neuroscience, Neurosurgery, Uppsala University , Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Niklas Marklund
- 3 Department of Neuroscience, Neurosurgery, Uppsala University , Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Lars Hillered
- 3 Department of Neuroscience, Neurosurgery, Uppsala University , Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Gunnar Nilsson
- 2 Department of Medicine, Immunology and Allergy Unit, Karolinska Institutet and Karolinska University Hospital , Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Karin Forsberg-Nilsson
- 1 Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Science for Life Laboratory, Rudbeck Laboratory, Uppsala University , Uppsala, Sweden
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14
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Jia H, Xu S, Liu Q, Liu J, Xu J, Li W, Jin Y, Ji Q. Effect of pioglitazone on neuropathic pain and spinal expression of TLR-4 and cytokines. Exp Ther Med 2016; 12:2644-2650. [PMID: 27698768 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2016.3643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2014] [Accepted: 01/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms underlying neuropathic pain have yet to be elucidated. The present study aimed to examine the modulation of neuroimmune activation in the spinal cord by the synthetic peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) agonist, pioglitazone (Pio), in a rat model of neuropathic pain induced by chronic constriction injury (CCI). Rats were randomly assigned into four groups: Sham surgery with vehicle, chronic constriction injury with vehicle or Pio (10 mg/kg), and chronic constriction injury with Pio and a PPAR-γ antagonist GW9662 (2 mg/kg). Pio or vehicle was administered 1 h prior to the surgery and continued daily until day 7 post-surgery. Paw pressure threshold was measured prior to surgery and on days 0, 1, 3 and 7 post-surgery. Microglia activation markers macrophage antigen complex-1, the mRNA expression levels of tumor necrosis factor α and interleukin-1β, and the mRNA expression levels of toll like receptor (TLR-4) in the lumbar spinal cord were determined. Administration of Pio resulted in the prominent attenuation of mechanical hyperalgesia. In addition, Pio was able to significantly inhibit neuroimmune activation characterized by glial activation, the production of cytokines and expression levels of TLR-4. Concurrent administration of a PPAR-γ antagonist, GW9662, reversed the effects of Pio. The antihyperalgesic effect of administration of Pio in rats receiving CCI may, in part, be attributed to the inhibition of neuroimmune activation associated with the sustaining of neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongbin Jia
- Department of Anesthesiology, Jinling Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210002, P.R. China
| | - Shuangshuang Xu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Jinling Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210002, P.R. China
| | - Qingzhen Liu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Jinling Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210002, P.R. China
| | - Jian Liu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Jinling Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210002, P.R. China
| | - Jianguo Xu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Jinling Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210002, P.R. China
| | - Weiyan Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, Jinling Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210002, P.R. China
| | - Yi Jin
- Department of Anesthesiology, Jinling Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210002, P.R. China
| | - Qing Ji
- Department of Anesthesiology, Jinling Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210002, P.R. China
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15
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Nicotine inhibits activation of microglial proton currents via interactions with α7 acetylcholine receptors. J Physiol Sci 2016; 67:235-245. [PMID: 27256075 PMCID: PMC5910455 DOI: 10.1007/s12576-016-0460-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2016] [Accepted: 05/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Alpha 7 subunits of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are expressed in microglia and are involved in the suppression of neuroinflammation. Over the past decade, many reports show beneficial effects of nicotine, though little is known about the mechanism. Here we show that nicotine inhibits lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced proton (H+) currents and morphological change by using primary cultured microglia. The H+ channel currents were measured by whole-cell patch clamp method under voltage-clamp condition. Increased H+ current in activated microglia was attenuated by blocking NADPH oxidase. The inhibitory effect of nicotine was due to the activation of α7 nAChR, not a direct action on the H+ channels, because the effects of nicotine was cancelled by α7 nAChR antagonists. Neurotoxic effect of LPS-activated microglia due to inflammatory cytokines was also attenuated by pre-treatment of microglia with nicotine. These results suggest that α7 nAChRs in microglia may be a therapeutic target in neuroinflammatory diseases.
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16
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Bell-Temin H, Culver-Cochran AE, Chaput D, Carlson CM, Kuehl M, Burkhardt BR, Bickford PC, Liu B, Stevens SM. Novel Molecular Insights into Classical and Alternative Activation States of Microglia as Revealed by Stable Isotope Labeling by Amino Acids in Cell Culture (SILAC)-based Proteomics. Mol Cell Proteomics 2015; 14:3173-84. [PMID: 26424600 PMCID: PMC4762627 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m115.053926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia, the resident immune cells of the brain, have been shown to display a complex spectrum of roles that span from neurotrophic to neurotoxic depending on their activation status. Microglia can be classified into four stages of activation, M1, which most closely matches the classical (pro-inflammatory) activation stage, and the alternative activation stages M2a, M2b, and M2c. The alternative activation stages have not yet been comprehensively analyzed through unbiased, global-scale protein expression profiling. In this study, BV2 mouse immortalized microglial cells were stimulated with agonists specific for each of the four stages and total protein expression for 4644 protein groups was quantified using SILAC-based proteomic analysis. After validating induction of the various stages through a targeted cytokine assay and Western blotting of activation states, the data revealed novel insights into the similarities and differences between the various states. The data identify several protein groups whose expression in the anti-inflammatory, pro-healing activation states are altered presumably to curtail inflammatory activation through differential protein expression, in the M2a state including CD74, LYN, SQST1, TLR2, and CD14. The differential expression of these proteins promotes healing, limits phagocytosis, and limits activation of reactive nitrogen species through toll-like receptor cascades. The M2c state appears to center around the down-regulation of a key member in the formation of actin-rich phagosomes, SLP-76. In addition, the proteomic data identified a novel activation marker, DAB2, which is involved in clathrin-mediated endocytosis and is significantly different between M2a and either M1 or M2b states. Western blot analysis of mouse primary microglia stimulated with the various agonists of the classical and alternative activation states revealed a similar trend of DAB2 expression compared with BV2 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harris Bell-Temin
- From the ‡Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave, Tampa, Florida 33620
| | - Ashley E Culver-Cochran
- From the ‡Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave, Tampa, Florida 33620
| | - Dale Chaput
- From the ‡Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave, Tampa, Florida 33620
| | - Christina M Carlson
- From the ‡Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave, Tampa, Florida 33620
| | - Melanie Kuehl
- From the ‡Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave, Tampa, Florida 33620
| | - Brant R Burkhardt
- From the ‡Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave, Tampa, Florida 33620
| | - Paula C Bickford
- §James A. Haley VA Hospital, Research Service and Department of Neurosurgery and Brain Repair, University of South Florida, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Blvd, Tampa, Florida 33612
| | - Bin Liu
- ¶Department of Pharmacodynamics, University of Florida, 1345 Center Drive, Gainesville, Florida 32610
| | - Stanley M Stevens
- From the ‡Department of Cell Biology, Microbiology, and Molecular Biology, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave, Tampa, Florida 33620;
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17
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Sun P, Li X, Chen C, Chen Q, Ouyang Q, Liu F, Xiang Z, Yuan H. Activating transcription factor 4 modulates BDNF release from microglial cells. J Mol Neurosci 2013; 52:225-30. [PMID: 24072482 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-013-0126-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2013] [Accepted: 09/16/2013] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Pathogenic pain is a common sign of many diseases. The mechanism is unclear. Activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4) plays a critical role in cell activation. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is an important molecule in pathogenic pain. This study aims to investigate the role of ATF4 in inducing BDNF release from microglial cells. In this study, mouse microglial cells were cultured. The levels of BDNF in the culture medium were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Overexpression of ATF4 in microglial cells was performed by gene transfection. The apoptosis of microglial cells was assessed by flow cytometry. The results showed that microglial cells expressed ATF4 and protease-activated receptor-2 (PAR2). BDNF was detectable in the culture medium of microglial cells, which was significantly increased in the ATF4-overexpressing microglial cells. The ATF4-overexpressing microglial cells showed a high frequency of apoptotic cells, which could be inhibited by exposure to the PAR2 agonist tryptase in the culture. The tryptase-treated ATF4-overexpressing microglial cells kept higher secretion of BDNF. We conclude that the activation of ATF4 can increase BDNF release from microglial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengling Sun
- Department of Anesthesiology, Neuroscience Research Centre, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, 200003, China
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