Pharmacological inhibition of Rac1 exerts a protective role in ischemia/reperfusion-induced renal fibrosis

Dedicator of cytokinesis protein 2 activates the epithelial-mesenchymal transition in renal fibrosis through the Rac1/PI3K/AKT pathway

Renal fibrosis is the most important feature of the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD), and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) plays an important role in renal fibrosis. Dedicator of cytokinesis protein 2 (Dock2) is involved in the immune system and the development of a variety of fibrotic diseases. However, its specific role in renal fibrosis remains unclear. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the role and mechanism of Dock2 in renal fibrosis. We constructed an in vivo mouse model of unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) and an in vitro model of recombinant human transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1)-induced HK-2 cells. The function and regulatory mechanism of Dock2 were studied via Western blotting, qRT-PCR, immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence. First, Dock2 was more highly expressed in the kidneys of UUO mice than in those of sham-operated mice. A reduction in Dock2 can improve pathological changes in the kidney tissue of UUO mice, reduce the deposition of the extracellular matrix (ECM), and alleviate EMT. Silencing Dock2 reduced the activation of both the Rac1 pathway and the PI3K/AKT pathway. TGF-β1 promoted Dock2 expression in HK-2 cells in vitro. A decrease in Dock2 can inhibit the expression of Fibronectin, Collagen I, α-SMA and Vimentin and increase the level of E-cadherin. Treatment of HK-2 cells with the Rac1 activator 8-CPT or the PI3K/AKT pathway activator YS-49 inhibited the above changes induced by siDock2, indicating that Dock2 activates EMT in renal fibrosis through the Rac1/PI3K/AKT pathway. Our data suggest that Dock2 may be a potential target for renal fibrosis treatment.

Regulatory mechanisms of macrophage-myofibroblast transdifferentiation: A potential therapeutic strategy for fibrosis

Macrophage-myofibroblast transdifferentiation (MMT), a fibrotic process impacting diverse tissue types, has garnered recent scholarly interest. Within damaged tissues, the role of myofibroblasts is pivotal in the accumulation of excessive fibrous connective tissue, leading to persistent scarring or organ dysfunction. Consequently, the examination of MMT-related fibrosis is imperative. This review underscores MMT as a fundamental mechanism in myofibroblast generation during tissue fibrosis, and its exploration is crucial for elucidating the regulatory mechanisms underlying this process. Gaining insight into these mechanisms promises to facilitate the development of therapeutic approaches aimed at inhibiting and reversing fibrosis, thereby offering potential avenues for the treatment of fibrotic diseases.

Single-cell transcriptomics reveals cellular heterogeneity and macrophage-to-mesenchymal transition in bicuspid calcific aortic valve disease

BACKGROUND

Bicuspid aortic valve (BAV) is the most prevalent congenital valvular heart defect, and around 50% of severe isolated calcific aortic valve disease (CAVD) cases are associated with BAV. Although previous studies have demonstrated the cellular heterogeneity of aortic valves, the cellular composition of specific BAV at the single-cell level remains unclear.

METHODS

Four BAV specimens from aortic valve stenosis patients were collected to conduct single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq). In vitro experiments were performed to further validate some phenotypes.

RESULTS

The heterogeneity of stromal cells and immune cells were revealed based on comprehensive analysis. We identified twelve subclusters of VICs, four subclusters of ECs, six subclusters of lymphocytes, six subclusters of monocytic cells and one cluster of mast cells. Based on the detailed cell atlas, we constructed a cellular interaction network. Several novel cell types were identified, and we provided evidence for established mechanisms on valvular calcification. Furthermore, when exploring the monocytic lineage, a special population, macrophage derived stromal cells (MDSC), was revealed to be originated from MRC1+ (CD206) macrophages (Macrophage-to-Mesenchymal transition, MMT). FOXC1 and PI3K-AKT pathway were identified as potential regulators of MMT through scRNA analysis and in vitro experiments.

CONCLUSIONS

With an unbiased scRNA-seq approach, we identified a full spectrum of cell populations and a cellular interaction network in stenotic BAVs, which may provide insights for further research on CAVD. Notably, the exploration on mechanism of MMT might provide potential therapeutic targets for bicuspid CAVD.

The Human Myofibroblast Marker Xylosyltransferase-I: A New Indicator for Macrophage Polarization

Chronic inflammation and excessive synthesis of extracellular matrix components, such as proteoglycans (PG), by fibroblast- or macrophage-derived myofibroblasts are the hallmarks of fibrotic diseases, including systemic sclerosis (SSc). Human xylosyltransferase-I (XT-I), which is encoded by the gene XYLT1, is the key enzyme that is involved in PG biosynthesis. Increased cellular XYLT1 expression and serum XT-I activity were measured in SSc. Nothing is known so far about the regulation of XT-I in immune cells, and their contribution to the increase in measurable serum XT-I activity. We utilized an in vitro model, with primary human CD14+CD16+ monocyte-derived macrophages (MΦ), in order to investigate the role of macrophage polarization on XT-I regulation. The MΦ generated were polarized towards two macrophage phenotypes that were associated with SSc, which were classified as classical pro-inflammatory (M1-like), and alternative pro-fibrotic (M2-like) MΦ. The fully characterized M1- and M2-like MΦ cultures showed differential XT-I gene and protein expressions. The fibrotic M2-like MΦ cultures exhibited higher XT-I secretion, as well as increased expression of myofibroblast marker α-smooth muscle actin, indicating the onset of macrophage-to-myofibroblast transition (MMT). Thus, we identified XT-I as a novel macrophage polarization marker for in vitro generated M1- and M2-like MΦ subtypes, and broadened the view of XT-I as a myofibroblast marker in the process of MMT.

Rac1 as a therapeutic anticancer target: Promises and limitations

Small molecule inhibitors of GTPases are increasingly considered for the treatment of multiple human pathologies. The GTPase Rac1 (Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1) plays major roles in vital cellular processes, notably in the control cell motility and dynamic, the regulation of oxidative stress, and in inflammatory and immune surveillance. As such, Rac1 is viewed as a potential target to combat cancers but also diverse inflammatory, metabolic, neurodegenerative, respiratory, cardiovascular, viral, and parasitic diseases. Potent and selective Rac1 inhibitors have been identified and designed, such as compounds GYS32661 and MBQ-167 both in preclinical development for the treatment of advanced solid tumors. The pleiotropic roles and ubiquitous expression of the protein can be viewed as limitations for anticancer approaches. However, the frequent overexpression and/or hyperactivation of the Rac1 in difficult-to-treat chemoresistant cancers, make Rac1 an attractive target in oncology. The key roles of Rac1 in multiple cellular pathways, together with its major implications in carcinogenesis, tumor proliferation and metastasis, support the development of small molecule inhibitors. The challenge is high and the difficulty shall not be underestimated, but the target is innovative and promising in combination with chemo- and/or immuno-therapy. Opportunities and challenges associated with the targeting of Rac1 are discussed.

Role of tRNA derived fragments in renal ischemia-reperfusion injury

Background

Ischemia–reperfusion injury (IRI) is one of the major causes of acute kidney injury (AKI). tRNA derived fragments (tRFs/tiRNAs) are groups of small noncoding RNAs derived from tRNAs. To date, the role of tRFs/tiRNAs in renal IRI has not been reported. Herein, we aimed to investigate the involvement of tRFs/tiRNAs in the occurrence and development of ischemia–reperfusion-induced AKI.

Methods

Moderate/severe renal IRI mouse models were established by bilateral renal pedicle clamping. The tRF/tiRNA profiles of healthy controls and moderate/severe IRI-stressed kidney tissues were sequenced by Illumina NextSeq 500. Candidate differentially expressed tiRNAs were further verified by RT-qPCR. Biological analysis was also performed.

Results

Overall, 152 tRFs/tiRNAs were differentially expressed in the moderate ischemic injury group compared with the normal control group (FC > 2, p < 0.05), of which 47 were upregulated and 105 were downregulated; in the severe ischemic injury group, 285 tRFs/tiRNAs were differentially expressed (FC > 2, p < 0.05), of which 157 were upregulated, and 128 were downregulated. RT-qPCR determination of eight abundantly expressed tiRNAs was consistent with the sequencing results. Gene Ontology analysis for target genes of the tRFs/tiRNAs showed that the most enriched cell components, molecular functions and biological processes were Golgi apparatus, cytoplasmic vesicles, protein binding, cellular protein localization and multicellular organism development. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis showed that these target genes were mainly involved in the natural killer cell mediated cytotoxicity pathway, citrate cycle, and regulation of actin cytoskeleton signaling pathway.

Conclusion

Our results indicated that tRFs/tiRNAs were involved in renal IRI. These tRFs/tiRNAs may be effective partly via regulation of renal immunity, inflammation and metabolism processes. Candidate genes, including tiRNA-Gly-GCC-003, tiRNA-Lys-CTT-003, and tiRNA-His-GTG-002, might be potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets of ischemia–reperfusion injury-induced acute kidney injury.

Hepatic Ischemia-reperfusion Injury in Mice was Alleviated by Rac1 Inhibition - More Than Just ROS-inhibition

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Reducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production has proven an effective way for alleviating oxidative stress during ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI). Moreover, inhibition of Rac1 could reduce ROS production and prevent oxidative stress injury. Previous studies have suggested a positive interactivation feedback loop between Rac1 and hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α, the latter being up-regulated early during ischemia. The positive inter-activation between Rac1 and HIF-1α would aggravate ROS production, thereby promoting IRI. This study was designed to verify the effects of Rac1 inhibition on hepatic IRI both at animal and cellular levels and to explore the interaction between Rac1 and HIF-1α during hepatic IRI.

METHODS

C57B/6 mice and AML-12 cells were used for the construction of hepatic IRI animal and cell models. Rac1 inhibition was achieved by NSC23766 (a specific Rac1 inhibitor). Lentiviral vectors were used for Rac1 knockdown. At designated time points, serum and liver tissues were collected from the mice and treated cells were collected for further analysis.

RESULTS

NSC23766 treatment significantly alleviated the hepatic IRI in mice, manifesting as lower vacuolation score and less apoptosis cells, lower ROS and serum/liver alanine aminotransferase/aspartate aminotransferase levels, and fewer activated inflammatory cells. IRI of AML-12 was also alleviated by 50 µM NSC23766 or Rac1-knockdown, manifesting as reduced cell apoptosis, less extensive interruption of mitochondrial membrane potential, down-regulation of apoptosis, and effects on DNA damage-related proteins. Interestingly, Rac1 knockdown also down-regulated the expression level of HIF-1α.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study supports a protective effect of Rac1 inhibition on hepatic IRI. Aside from the classic topics of reducing ROS production and oxidative stress, our study showed an interaction between Rac1 and HIF-1α signaling during hepatic IRI.

Exploring the molecular mechanism of hepatitis virus inducing hepatocellular carcinoma by microarray data and immune infiltrates analysis

The number of new cases of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) worldwide reached 910,000, ranking the sixth, 80% HCC is associated with viruses, so exploring the molecular mechanism of viral carcinogenicity is imperative. The study showed that both HBV and HCV associated HCC and non-viral HCC have the same molecular phenotype (low gene expression and inhibition of immune pathways), but in the tumor immune micro-environment, there is excessive M2-type macrophage polarization in virus-associated hepatocellular carcinoma. To address this phenomenon, the data sets were analyzed and identified five hub genes (POLR2A, POLR2B, RPL5, RPS6, RPL23A) involved in viral gene expression and associated with PI3K-Akt-mTOR pathway activation by six algorithms. In addition, numerous studies have reported that M2-type macrophages participate in the hepatic fibro-pathological process of the development of HCC and are regulated by the PI3K-Akt-mTOR pathway. On this basis, the study showed that hepatitis virus causes abnormal expression of hub genes, leading to the activation of the pathway, which in turn promote the differentiation of M2-type macrophages and eventually promote the formation of liver fibrosis, leading to the occurrence of HCC. In addition, these hub genes are regulated by transcription factors and m⁶A enzyme, and have good prognosis and diagnostic value. With regard to drug reuse, the results suggest that patients with virus-related HCC for whom Cytidine triphosphate disodium salt and Guanosine-5'-Triphosphate are used as supplementary therapy, and may have a better prognosis. In conclusion, the study has identified novel molecules that are carcinogenic to hepatitis viruses and are expected to serve as molecular markers and targets for diagnosis and treatment.

Rho GTPases in kidney physiology and diseases

Rho family GTPases are molecular switches best known for their pivotal role in dynamic regulation of the actin cytoskeleton, but also of cellular morphology, motility, adhesion and proliferation. The prototypic members of this family (RhoA, Rac1 and Cdc42) also contribute to the normal kidney function and play important roles in the structure and function of various kidney cells including tubular epithelial cells, mesangial cells and podocytes. The kidney's vital filtration function depends on the structural integrity of the glomerulus, the proximal portion of the nephron. Within the glomerulus, the architecturally actin-based cytoskeleton podocyte forms the final cellular barrier to filtration. The glomerulus appears as a highly dynamic signalling hub that is capable of integrating intracellular cues from its individual structural components. Dynamic regulation of the podocyte cytoskeleton is required for efficient barrier function of the kidney. As master regulators of actin cytoskeletal dynamics, Rho GTPases are therefore of critical importance for sustained kidney barrier function. Dysregulated activities of the Rho GTPases and of their effectors are implicated in the pathogenesis of both hereditary and idiopathic forms of kidney diseases. Diabetic nephropathy is a progressive kidney disease that is caused by injury to kidney glomeruli. High glucose activates RhoA/Rho-kinase in mesangial cells, leading to excessive extracellular matrix production (glomerulosclerosis). This RhoA/Rho-kinase pathway also seems involved in the post-transplant hypertension frequently observed during treatment with calcineurin inhibitors, whereas Rac1 activation was observed in post-transplant ischaemic acute kidney injury.

The protective effects of red ginseng and amifostine against renal damage caused by ionizing radiation

This study aimed to elucidate the effects of amifostine (ethyol) (AM), a synthetic radioprotector, and red ginseng (RG), a natural radioprotective agent, against the toxic effect of ionizing radiation (IR) on kidney tissues through changes in biochemical and histopathological parameters in addition to contributions to the use of amifostine and RG in clinical studies . Five groups were established: Group I (control, receiving only saline by gavage), Group II (IR only), and Group III (IR+AM, 200 mg/kg intraperitoneally (i.p.). Group IV (IR + RG, 200 mg/kg orally once a day for 4 weeks), and Group V (IR+RG+AM, 200 mg/kg orally once/day for 4 weeks before IR and 200 mg/kg AM administered (i.p.) 30 min before IR). All groups, except for the control group, were subject to 6-Gy whole-body IR in a single fraction. 24 h after irradiation, all animals were sacrificed under anesthesia. IR enhanced MDA, 8-OHdG, and caspase-3 expression while decreasing renal tissue GSH levels ( p < .05). Significant numbers of necrotic tubules together with diffuse vacuolization in proximal and distal tubule epithelial cells were also observed. The examination also revealed substantial brush boundary loss in proximal tubules as well as relatively unusual glomerular structures. While GSH levels significantly increased in the AM, RG, and AM+RG groups, a decrease in KHDS, MDA, 8-OHdG, and caspase-3 expression was observed, compared to the group subject to IR only ( p < .05). Therefore, reactive oxygen species-scavenging antioxidants may represent a promising treatment for avoiding kidney damage in patients receiving radiation.

Monocyte and macrophage derived myofibroblasts: Is it fate? A review of the current evidence

Since the discovery of the myofibroblast over 50 years ago, much has been learned about its role in wound healing and fibrosis. Its origin, however, remains controversial, with a number of progenitor cells being proposed. Macrophage-myofibroblast transition (MMT) is a recent term coined in 2014 that describes the mechanism through which macrophages, derived from circulating monocytes originating in the bone marrow, transformed into myofibroblasts and contributed to kidney fibrosis. Over the past years, several studies have confirmed the existence of MMT in various systems, suggesting that MMT could potentially occur in all fibrotic conditions and constitute a reasonable therapeutic target to prevent progressive fibrotic disease. In this perspective, we examined recent evidence supporting the notion of MMT in both human disease and experimental models across organ systems. Mechanistic insight from these studies and information from in vitro studies is provided. The findings substantiating plausible MMT showcased the co-expression of macrophage and myofibroblast markers, including CD68 or F4/80 (macrophage) and α-SMA (myofibroblast), in fibroblast-like cells. Furthermore, fate-mapping experiments in murine models exhibiting myeloid-derived myofibroblasts in the tissue further provide direct evidence for MMT. Additionally, we provide some evidence from single cell RNA sequencing experiments confirmed by fluorescent in situ hybridisation studies, showing monocyte/macrophage and myofibroblast markers co-expressed in lung tissue from patients with fibrotic lung disease. In conclusion, MMT is likely a significant contributor to myofibroblast formation in wound healing and fibrotic disease across organ systems. Circulating precursors including monocytes and the molecular mechanisms governing MMT could constitute valid targets and provide insight for the development of novel antifibrotic therapies; however, further understanding of these processes is warranted.

Rac1 silencing, NSC23766 and EHT1864 reduce growth and actin organization of bladder smooth muscle cells

AIMS

RacGTPase-mediated proliferation and smooth muscle contraction in the lower urinary tract has been recently suggested and may offer putative targets for treamtment of lower urinary tract symptoms. However, RacGTPase function for proliferation of detrusor smooth muscle cells is unknown and the specificity of Rac inhibitors has been questioned. Here, we examined effects of Rac1 knockdown and of the Rac inhibitors NSC23766 and EHT1864 in human bladder smooth muscle cells (hBSMCs).

MAIN METHODS

Rac1 expression was silenced by shRNA expression. Effects of silencing and Rac inhibitors were assessed by CCK-8 assay, EdU staining, RT-PCR, colony formation assay, flow cytometry, and phalloidin staining.

KEY FINDINGS

Silencing of Rac1 expression reduced the viability (up to 83% compared to scramble shRNA) and proliferation (virtually completely in proliferation assay), increased apoptosis (124%) and the number of dead cells (51%), and caused breakdown of actin organization (56% reduction of polymerized actin compared to scramble shRNA). Effects on proliferation, viability, and actin organization were mimicked by NSC23766 and EHT1864, while both compounds showed divergent effects on cell death (32-fold increase of dead cells by EHT1864, but not NSC23766). Effects of NSC23766 and EHT1864 on viability of hBSMCs were not altered by Rac1 knockdown.

SIGNIFICANCE

Rac1 promotes proliferation, viability, and cytoskeletal organization, and suppresses apoptosis in bladder smooth muscle cells, which may be relevant in overactive bladder or diabetes-related bladder dysfunction. NSC23766 and EHT1864 mimick these effects, but may act Rac1-independently, by shared and divergent effects.

The effects of whortleberry on ischemia reperfusion-induced myocardial injury in rats

Background

The aim of this study was to investigate the potential protective effect of whortleberry by examining the effects on heart tissue at the molecular level of ischemia-reperfusion injury caused by surgical repair of a ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm.

Methods

Between May 2018 and February 2019, a total of 32 male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned into control, sham (ischemia-reperfusion+glycerol), ischemia-reperfusion, and ischemia-reperfusion+whortleberry groups. Hypovolemic shock was applied to the rats in the ischemia-reperfusion groups for one hour. The abdominal aorta was explored following midline laparotomy and atraumatic microvascular clamps were applied from the infrarenal level. Following one-hour ischemia, the clamps were removed, and reperfusion was established for two hours. In the sham group, intraperitoneal glycerol once daily was applied five days before surgery. In the whortleberry group, whortleberry treatment was administered via the intraperitoneal route five days before ischemia-reperfusion.

Results

The ischemia-reperfusion group exhibited a decrease in the glutathione levels and an increase in the malondialdehyde levels (p<0.01 and p<0.01, respectively). We also observed an increase in the caspase-3 positivity in cardiac myofibrils (p<0.01). Whortleberry administration lowered both malondialdehyde levels and numerical density of caspase-3 positive cardiac myofibrils, while increasing the heart tissue glutathione levels, compared to the ischemia-reperfusion alone group (p<0.01, p=0.011, and p=0.011, respectively).

Conclusion

Whortleberry may be beneficial in preventing cardiac tissue damage caused by ischemia-reperfusion in the surgical repair of ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysms.

The N6-methyladenosine mRNA methylase METTL14 promotes renal ischemic reperfusion injury via suppressing YAP1

Renal ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) is one of the most common causes of acute kidney injury (AKI), which is closely related to high morbidity and mortality. However, the pathogenesis underlying renal IRI is complex and not fully defined. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) was recently found to be an abundant modification in mammalian messenger RNAs. It is implicated in various biological processes, while the role of m6A in IRI is not illustrated. Here we show that the m6A-methylated RNA level and its methyltransferase METTL14 are elevated in human AKI renal tissues and IRI HK-2 cells. Moreover, METTL14 knockdown protects the kidney against IRI in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistically, we identified that YAP1 is a direct target of METTL14 in AKI progression. Inhibition of YAP1-TEAD signaling by peptide 17 abrogates the protective effect of METTL14 against IRI in vitro and in vivo. Taken together, these results reveal that the N6-methyladenosine mRNA methylase METTL14 promotes the renal IRI via suppressing YAP1. The discovery of the METTL14-YAP1 pathway provides an important new perspective for understanding AKI and is conducive to revealing new therapeutic strategies and targets.

Distinct contribution of Rac1 expression in cardiomyocytes to anthracycline-induced cardiac injury

Cardiotoxicity is the dose limiting adverse effect of anthracycline-based anticancer therapy. Inhibitor studies point to Rac1 as therapeutic target to prevent anthracycline-induced cardiotoxicity. Yet, supporting genetic evidence is still missing and the pathophysiological relevance of different cardiac cell types is unclear. Here, we employed a tamoxifen-inducible cardiomyocyte-specific rac1 knock-out mouse model (Rac1^{flox/flox/MHC-MerCreMer}) to investigate the impact of Rac1 expression in cardiomyocytes on cardiac injury following doxorubicin treatment. Distinctive stress responses resulting from doxorubicin treatment were observed, including upregulation of systemic markers of inflammation (IL-6, IL-1α, MCP-1), cardiac damage (ANP, BNP), DNA damage (i.e. DNA double-strand breaks (DSB)), DNA damage response (DDR) and cell death. Measuring the acute doxorubicin response, the serum level of MCP-1 was elevated, cardiac mRNA expression of Hsp70 was reduced and cardiac DDR was specifically enhanced in Rac1 deficient mice. The frequency of apoptotic heart cells remained unaffected by Rac1. Employing a subactue model, the number of doxorubicin-induced DSB was significantly reduced if Rac1 is absent. Yet, the doxorubicin-triggered increase in serum ANP and BNP levels remained unaffected by Rac1. Overall, knock-out of rac1 in cardiomyocytes confers partial protection against doxorubicin-induced cardiac injury. Hence, the data provide first genetic evidence supporting the view that pharmacological targeting of Rac1 is useful to widen the therapeutic window of anthracycline-based anticancer therapy by alleviating acute/subacute cardiomyocyte damage. Furthermore, considering published data obtained from the use of pharmacological Rac1 inhibitors, the results of our study indicate that Rac1-regulated functions of cardiac cell types others than cardiomyocytes additionally influence the adverse outcomes of anthracycline treatment on the heart.