1
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Moses RM, Stenhouse C, Halloran KM, Sah N, Hoskins EC, Washburn SE, Johnson GA, Wu G, Bazer FW. Metabolic pathways for glucose and fructose: I synthesis and metabolism of fructose by ovine conceptuses†. Biol Reprod 2024; 111:148-158. [PMID: 38501845 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioae043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Revised: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 02/24/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Fructose, the most abundant hexose sugar in fetal fluids and the blood of sheep and other ungulates and cetaceans, is synthesized from glucose via the polyol pathway in trophectoderm and chorion. However, the cell-specific and temporal expression of enzymes for the synthesis and metabolism of fructose in sheep conceptuses (embryo and placental membranes) and placentomes has not been characterized. This study characterized key enzymes involved in fructose synthesis and metabolism by ovine conceptuses throughout pregnancy. Day 17 conceptuses expressed mRNAs for the polyol pathway (SORD and AKR1B1) and glucose and fructose metabolism (HK1, HK2, G6PD, OGT, and FBP), but not those required for gluconeogenesis (G6Pase or PCK). Ovine placentomes also expressed mRNAs for SORD, AKR1B1, HK1, and OGT. Fructose can be metabolized via the ketohexokinase (KHK) pathway, and isoforms, KHK-A and KHK-C, were expressed in ovine conceptuses from Day 16 of pregnancy and placentomes during pregnancy in a cell-specific manner. The KHK-A protein was more abundant in the trophectoderm and cotyledons of placentomes, while KHK-C protein was more abundant in the endoderm of Day 16 conceptuses and the chorionic epithelium in placentomes. Expression of KHK mRNAs in placentomes was greatest at Day 30 of pregnancy (P < 0.05), but not different among days later in gestation. These results provide novel insights into the synthesis and metabolism of fructose via the uninhibited KHK pathway in ovine conceptuses to generate ATP via the tricarboxylic cycle, as well as substrates for the pentose cycle, hexosamine biosynthesis pathway, and one-carbon metabolism required for conceptus development throughout pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robyn M Moses
- Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Claire Stenhouse
- Department of Animal Science, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Katherine M Halloran
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Nirvay Sah
- Department of Pathology, University of California-San Diego, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Emily C Hoskins
- Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Shannon E Washburn
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pathology, Texas A&M University, College Station Texas, USA
| | - Gregory A Johnson
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Guoyao Wu
- Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Fuller W Bazer
- Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
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2
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Ting KKY. Fructose-induced metabolic reprogramming of cancer cells. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1375461. [PMID: 38711514 PMCID: PMC11070519 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1375461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Excess dietary fructose consumption has been long proposed as a culprit for the world-wide increase of incidence in metabolic disorders and cancer within the past decades. Understanding that cancer cells can gradually accumulate metabolic mutations in the tumor microenvironment, where glucose is often depleted, this raises the possibility that fructose can be utilized by cancer cells as an alternative source of carbon. Indeed, recent research has increasingly identified various mechanisms that show how cancer cells can metabolize fructose to support their proliferating and migrating needs. In light of this growing interest, this review will summarize the recent advances in understanding how fructose can metabolically reprogram different types of cancer cells, as well as how these metabolic adaptations can positively support cancer cells development and malignancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth K. Y. Ting
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Toronto General Hospital Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, Canada
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3
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Nemati M, Shayanfar M, Almasi F, Mohammad-Shirazi M, Sharifi G, Aminianfar A, Esmaillzadeh A. Dietary patterns in relation to glioma: a case-control study. Cancer Metab 2024; 12:8. [PMID: 38500219 PMCID: PMC10946126 DOI: 10.1186/s40170-024-00336-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Although the association of individual foods and nutrients with glioma have been investigated, studies on the association of major dietary patterns and glioma are scarce. The aim of this study was to examine the association between major dietary patterns and risk of glioma in a group of Iranian adults. In this hospital-based case-control design, we recruited 128 newly diagnosed glioma cases and 256 controls in Tehran from 2009 to 2011. A Willett-format-validated 126-item semi-quantitative Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ) was used to assess participants' dietary intake. Factor analysis was used to identify major dietary patterns. We identified 3 major dietary patterns using factor analysis: high protein, vegetarian and western dietary pattern. After several adjustments for potential confounders, adherence to the high protein dietary pattern was inversely associated with risk of glioma (OR: 0.47; 95% CI: 0.23, 0.95). Consumption of vegetarian dietary pattern was also associated with a reduced risk of glioma (OR: 0.16; 95% CI: 0.07, 0.34). Greater adherence to the western dietary pattern was associated with a greater chance of glioma (OR: 3.30; 95% CI: 1.52, 7.17). We found that high protein, vegetarian and western dietary pattern were significantly associated with glioma risk. Further prospective studies are needed to confirm these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Nemati
- Department of Community Nutrition, School of Nutritional Sciences and Dietetics, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehdi Shayanfar
- Department of Clinical Nutrition and Dietetics, National Nutrition and Food Technology Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Almasi
- Research Center for Biochemistry and Nutrition in Metabolic Diseases, Institute for Basic Science, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, No. 226, Ravand Blv, Kashan, 1416753955, Iran
| | - Minoo Mohammad-Shirazi
- Department of Clinical Nutrition and Dietetics, National Nutrition and Food Technology Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Giuve Sharifi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Loghman Hakim Hospital, Tehran, Iran
| | - Azadeh Aminianfar
- Research Center for Biochemistry and Nutrition in Metabolic Diseases, Institute for Basic Science, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, No. 226, Ravand Blv, Kashan, 1416753955, Iran.
| | - Ahmad Esmaillzadeh
- Department of Community Nutrition, School of Nutritional Sciences and Dietetics, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
- Obesity and Eating Habits Research Center, Endocrinology and Metabolism Molecular-Cellular Sciences Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
- Department of Community Nutrition, School of Nutrition and Food Science, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran.
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4
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Cui Y, Tian J, Wang Z, Guo H, Zhang H, Wang Z, Liu H, Song W, Liu L, Tian R, Zuo X, Ren S, Niu R, Zhang F. Fructose-Induced mTORC1 Activation Promotes Pancreatic Cancer Progression through Inhibition of Autophagy. Cancer Res 2023; 83:4063-4079. [PMID: 37738413 PMCID: PMC10722142 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-23-0464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
Excessive fructose intake is associated with the occurrence, progression, and poor prognosis of various tumors. A better understanding of the mechanisms underlying the functions of fructose in cancer could facilitate the development of better treatment and prevention strategies. In this study, we investigated the functional association between fructose utilization and pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) progression. Fructose could be taken up and metabolized by PDAC cells and provided an adaptive survival mechanism for PDAC cells under glucose-deficient conditions. GLUT5-mediated fructose metabolism maintained the survival, proliferation, and invasion capacities of PDAC cells in vivo and in vitro. Fructose metabolism not only provided ATP and biomass to PDAC cells but also conferred metabolic plasticity to the cells, making them more adaptable to the tumor microenvironment. Mechanistically, fructose activated the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-mTORC1 signaling pathway to inhibit glucose deficiency-induced autophagic cell death. Moreover, the fructose-specific transporter GLUT5 was highly expressed in PDAC tissues and was an independent marker of disease progression in patients with PDAC. These findings provide mechanistic insights into the role of fructose in promoting PDAC progression and offer potential strategies for targeting metabolism to treat PDAC. SIGNIFICANCE Fructose activates AMPK-mTORC1 signaling to inhibit autophagy-mediated cell death in pancreatic cancer cells caused by glucose deficiency, facilitating metabolic adaptation to the tumor microenvironment and supporting tumor growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanfen Cui
- Public Laboratory, Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Therapy, Tianjin's Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Tianjin, China
| | - Jianfei Tian
- Public Laboratory, Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Therapy, Tianjin's Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Tianjin, China
| | - Zhaosong Wang
- Laboratory Animal Center, Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Therapy, Tianjin's Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Tianjin, China
| | - Hui Guo
- Public Laboratory, Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Therapy, Tianjin's Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Tianjin, China
| | - He Zhang
- Public Laboratory, Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Therapy, Tianjin's Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Tianjin, China
| | - Zhiyong Wang
- Public Laboratory, Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Therapy, Tianjin's Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Tianjin, China
| | - Hui Liu
- Public Laboratory, Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Therapy, Tianjin's Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Tianjin, China
| | - Weijie Song
- Laboratory Animal Center, Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Therapy, Tianjin's Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Tianjin, China
| | - Liming Liu
- Public Laboratory, Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Therapy, Tianjin's Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Tianjin, China
| | - Ruinan Tian
- Public Laboratory, Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Therapy, Tianjin's Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Tianjin, China
| | - Xiaoyan Zuo
- Public Laboratory, Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Therapy, Tianjin's Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Tianjin, China
| | - Sixin Ren
- Public Laboratory, Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Therapy, Tianjin's Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Tianjin, China
| | - Ruifang Niu
- Public Laboratory, Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Therapy, Tianjin's Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Tianjin, China
| | - Fei Zhang
- Public Laboratory, Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Therapy, Tianjin's Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Tianjin, China
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5
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Guccini I, Tang G, To TT, Di Rito L, Le Blanc S, Strobel O, D’Ambrosio M, Pasquini E, Bolis M, Silva P, Kabakci HA, Godbersen S, Alimonti A, Schwank G, Stoffel M. Genetic ablation of ketohexokinase C isoform impairs pancreatic cancer development. iScience 2023; 26:107368. [PMID: 37559908 PMCID: PMC10407955 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.107368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Although dietary fructose is associated with an elevated risk for pancreatic cancer, the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. Here, we report that ketohexokinase (KHK), the rate-limiting enzyme of fructose metabolism, is a driver of PDAC development. We demonstrate that fructose triggers KHK and induces fructolytic gene expression in mouse and human PDAC. Genetic inactivation of KhkC enhances the survival of KPC-driven PDAC even in the absence of high fructose diet. Furthermore, it decreases the viability, migratory capability, and growth of KPC cells in a cell autonomous manner. Mechanistically, we demonstrate that genetic ablation of KHKC strongly impairs the activation of KRAS-MAPK pathway and of rpS6, a downstream target of mTORC signaling. Moreover, overexpression of KHKC in KPC cells enhances the downstream KRAS pathway and cell viability. Our data provide new insights into the role of KHK in PDAC progression and imply that inhibiting KHK could have profound implications for pancreatic cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria Guccini
- Institute of Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Guanghui Tang
- Institute of Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Trang Thuy To
- Institute of Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Laura Di Rito
- Computational Oncology Unit, Department of Oncology, Istituto di Richerche Farmacologiche 'Mario Negri' IRCCS, 20156 Milano, Italy
| | - Solange Le Blanc
- European Pancreas Center, Department of General Surgery, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Oliver Strobel
- European Pancreas Center, Department of General Surgery, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Mariantonietta D’Ambrosio
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Oncology Institute of Southern Switzerland (IOSI), 6500 Bellinzona, Switzerland
- Universita’ della Svizzera Italiana, 6900 Lugano, Switzerland
| | - Emiliano Pasquini
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Oncology Institute of Southern Switzerland (IOSI), 6500 Bellinzona, Switzerland
- Universita’ della Svizzera Italiana, 6900 Lugano, Switzerland
| | - Marco Bolis
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Oncology Institute of Southern Switzerland (IOSI), 6500 Bellinzona, Switzerland
- Bioinformatics Core Unit, Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, TI, 6500 Bellinzona, Switzerland
| | - Pamuditha Silva
- Institute of Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Hasan Ali Kabakci
- Institute of Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Svenja Godbersen
- Institute of Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Andrea Alimonti
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Oncology Institute of Southern Switzerland (IOSI), 6500 Bellinzona, Switzerland
- Universita’ della Svizzera Italiana, 6900 Lugano, Switzerland
- Department of Medicine, University of Padua, 35128 Padua, Italy
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology (D-HEST) ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Gerald Schwank
- Institute of Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Markus Stoffel
- Institute of Molecular Health Sciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
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6
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Syamprasad NP, Jain S, Rajdev B, Prasad N, Kallipalli R, Naidu VGM. Aldose reductase and cancer metabolism: The master regulator in the limelight. Biochem Pharmacol 2023; 211:115528. [PMID: 37011733 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2023.115528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2023] [Revised: 03/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
It is strongly established that metabolic reprogramming mediates the initiation, progression, and metastasis of a variety of cancers. However, there is no common biomarker identified to link the dysregulated metabolism and cancer progression. Recent studies strongly advise the involvement of aldose reductase (AR) in cancer metabolism. AR-mediated glucose metabolism creates a Warburg-like effect and an acidic tumour microenvironment in cancer cells. Moreover, AR overexpression is associated with the impairment of mitochondria and the accumulation of free fatty acids in cancer cells. Further, AR-mediated reduction of lipid aldehydes and chemotherapeutics are involved in the activation of factors promoting proliferation and chemo-resistance. In this review, we have delineated the possible mechanisms by which AR modulates cellular metabolism for cancer proliferation and survival. An in-depth understanding of cancer metabolism and the role of AR might lead to the use of AR inhibitors as metabolic modulating agents for the therapy of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- N P Syamprasad
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research Guwahati, Sila Village, Changsari, Assam 781101, India
| | - Siddhi Jain
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research Guwahati, Sila Village, Changsari, Assam 781101, India
| | - Bishal Rajdev
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research Guwahati, Sila Village, Changsari, Assam 781101, India
| | - Neethu Prasad
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research Guwahati, Sila Village, Changsari, Assam 781101, India
| | - Ravindra Kallipalli
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research Guwahati, Sila Village, Changsari, Assam 781101, India
| | - V G M Naidu
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research Guwahati, Sila Village, Changsari, Assam 781101, India.
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7
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Kansal R. Fructose Metabolism and Acute Myeloid Leukemia. EXPLORATORY RESEARCH AND HYPOTHESIS IN MEDICINE 2022; 7:25-38. [DOI: 10.14218/erhm.2021.00042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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8
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Moses RM, Kramer AC, Seo H, Wu G, Johnson GA, Bazer FW. A Role for Fructose Metabolism in Development of Sheep and Pig Conceptuses. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1354:49-62. [PMID: 34807436 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-85686-1_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The period of conceptus (embryo and extraembryonic membrane) development between fertilization and implantation in mammalian species is critical as it sets the stage for placental and fetal development. The trophectoderm and endoderm of pre-implantation ovine and porcine conceptuses undergo elongation, which requires rapid proliferation, migration, and morphological modification of the trophectoderm cells. These complex events occur in a hypoxic intrauterine environment and are supported through the transport of secretions from maternal endometrial glands to the conceptus required for the biochemical processes of cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation. The conceptus utilizes glucose provided by the mother to initiate metabolic pathways that provide energy and substrates for other metabolic pathways. Fructose, however, is in much greater abundance than glucose in amniotic and allantoic fluids, and fetal blood during pregnancy. Despite this, the role(s) of fructose is largely unknown even though a switch to fructosedriven metabolism in subterranean rodents and some cancers are key to their adaptation to hypoxic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robyn M Moses
- Departments of Animal Science and Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Avery C Kramer
- Departments of Animal Science and Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Heewon Seo
- Departments of Animal Science and Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Guoyao Wu
- Departments of Animal Science and Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Gregory A Johnson
- Departments of Animal Science and Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Fuller W Bazer
- Departments of Animal Science and Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA.
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9
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Pini N, Huo Z, Holland-Cunz S, Gros SJ. Increased Proliferation of Neuroblastoma Cells under Fructose Metabolism Can Be Measured by Isothermal Microcalorimetry. CHILDREN-BASEL 2021; 8:children8090784. [PMID: 34572216 PMCID: PMC8467942 DOI: 10.3390/children8090784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2021] [Revised: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Neuroblastoma, like other cancer types, has an increased need for energy. This results in an increased thermogenic profile of the cells. How tumor cells optimize their energy efficiency has been discussed since Warburg described the fact that tumor cells prefer an anaerobic to an aerobic metabolism in the 1920s. An important question is how far the energy efficiency is influenced by the substrate. The aim of this study was to investigate how the metabolic activity of neuroblastoma cells is stimulated by addition of glucose or fructose to the medium and if this can be measured accurately by using isothermal microcalorimetry. Proliferation of Kelly and SH-EP Tet-21/N cells was determined in normal medium, in fructose-enriched, in glucose-enriched and in a fructose/glucose-enriched environment. Heat development of cells was measured by isothermal microcalorimetry. The addition of fructose, glucose or both to the medium led to increases in the metabolic activity of the cells, resulting in increased proliferation under the influence of fructose. These changes were reflected in an enhanced thermogenic profile, mirroring the results of the proliferation assay. The tested neuroblastoma cells prefer fructose metabolism over glucose metabolism, a quality that provides them with a survival benefit under unfavorable low oxygen and low nutrient supply when fructose is available. This can be quantified by measuring thermogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Pini
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, University Children’s Hospital Basel, Spitalstr. 33, 4031 Basel, Switzerland; (N.P.); (Z.H.); (S.H.-C.)
- Department of Clinical Research, University of Basel, Schanzenstrasse 55, 4021 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Zihe Huo
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, University Children’s Hospital Basel, Spitalstr. 33, 4031 Basel, Switzerland; (N.P.); (Z.H.); (S.H.-C.)
- Department of Clinical Research, University of Basel, Schanzenstrasse 55, 4021 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Holland-Cunz
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, University Children’s Hospital Basel, Spitalstr. 33, 4031 Basel, Switzerland; (N.P.); (Z.H.); (S.H.-C.)
| | - Stephanie J. Gros
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, University Children’s Hospital Basel, Spitalstr. 33, 4031 Basel, Switzerland; (N.P.); (Z.H.); (S.H.-C.)
- Department of Clinical Research, University of Basel, Schanzenstrasse 55, 4021 Basel, Switzerland
- Correspondence:
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10
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Li L, Zhang M, Zhu D, Wang X. High expression of cluster of differentiation 276 indicates poor prognosis in glioma. CLINICAL MEDICINE INSIGHTS-ONCOLOGY 2021; 15:11795549211032330. [PMID: 34366684 PMCID: PMC8299877 DOI: 10.1177/11795549211032330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Background Glioma is the central nervous system tumor with the highest incidence rate and the molecular detection of gliomas has been the focus of research. This study aimed to investigate the guiding effect of cluster of differentiation 276 (CD276) expression on the clinical prognosis of glioma. Methods The TCGA and CGGA databases were used to study whether CD 276 can be used as an independent prognostic factor for gliomas. Immunohistochemistry was used to detect the expression of CD276, isocitrate dehydrogenase-1 (IDH1), matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP9), p53, and Ki-67, and 1p/19q co-deletion was detected by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). The effects of CD276 RNA interference (RNAi) on cell invasion, cell cycle and the expression of β-catenin, tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1), and MMP9 were observed. Furthermore, the biological effects of CD276 gene knockout on intracranial transplanted tumors in nude mice were studied. Results CD276 expression was positively correlated with the extracellular matrix, collagen decomposition, and cell adhesion molecules. Immunohistochemistry and FISH showed that CD276 expression positively correlated with the glioma grade, p53 mutation, Ki-67 proliferation, and MMP9 expression; however, it negatively correlated with IDH1 mutation, 1p/19q co-deletion, and the survival rate. CD276 RNAi in U87 cells inhibited cell proliferation, migration, and invasion, but had no effect on the cell cycle. CD276 inhibited the expression of β-catenin, TNFR1, and MMP9 in U87 cells at the mRNA and protein levels. In vivo experiments showed that the tumor formation and invasion of the CD276 small interfering RNA glioma cell line in nude mice were reduced and the survival time was prolonged. Conclusions The present study demonstrated that high expression of CD276 in gliomas indicates a poor prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linchen Li
- Department of Children Rehabilitation, Third Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, P.R. China
| | - Min Zhang
- Department of Pathology, Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, P.R. China
| | - Dengna Zhu
- Department of Children Rehabilitation, Third Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, P.R. China
| | - Xinjun Wang
- Department of Neurology, The Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, P.R. China
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11
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Qiu R, Zhong Y, Li Q, Li Y, Fan H. Metabolic Remodeling in Glioma Immune Microenvironment: Intercellular Interactions Distinct From Peripheral Tumors. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:693215. [PMID: 34211978 PMCID: PMC8239469 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.693215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
During metabolic reprogramming, glioma cells and their initiating cells efficiently utilized carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids in the hypoxic lesions, which not only ensured sufficient energy for rapid growth and improved the migration to normal brain tissues, but also altered the role of immune cells in tumor microenvironment. Glioma cells secreted interferential metabolites or depriving nutrients to injure the tumor recognition, phagocytosis and lysis of glioma-associated microglia/macrophages (GAMs), cytotoxic T lymphocytes, natural killer cells and dendritic cells, promoted the expansion and infiltration of immunosuppressive regulatory T cells and myeloid-derived suppressor cells, and conferred immune silencing phenotypes on GAMs and dendritic cells. The overexpressed metabolic enzymes also increased the secretion of chemokines to attract neutrophils, regulatory T cells, GAMs, and dendritic cells, while weakening the recruitment of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells, which activated anti-inflammatory and tolerant mechanisms and hindered anti-tumor responses. Therefore, brain-targeted metabolic therapy may improve glioma immunity. This review will clarify the metabolic properties of glioma cells and their interactions with tumor microenvironment immunity, and discuss the application strategies of metabolic therapy in glioma immune silence and escape.
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Affiliation(s)
- Runze Qiu
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology Lab, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yue Zhong
- Center of Drug Discovery, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Qingquan Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yingbin Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Hongwei Fan
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology Lab, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
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Echeverría C, Nualart F, Ferrada L, Smith GJ, Godoy AS. Hexose Transporters in Cancer: From Multifunctionality to Diagnosis and Therapy. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2021; 32:198-211. [PMID: 33518451 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2020.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Cancer cells increase their metabolic activity by enhancing glucose uptake through overexpression of hexose transporters (Gluts). Gluts also have the capacity to transport other molecules besides glucose, including fructose, mannose, and dehydroascorbic acid (DHA), the oxidized form of vitamin C. The majority of research studies in this field have focused on the role of glucose transport and metabolism in cancer, leaving a substantial gap in our knowledge of the contribution of other hexoses and DHA in cancer biology. Here, we summarize the most recent advances in understanding the role that the multifunctional transport capacity of Gluts plays in biological and clinical aspects of cancer, and how these characteristics can be exploited in the search for novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Echeverría
- Centro de Biología Celular y Biomedicina, Universidad San Sebastián, Santiago, Chile; Centro de Investigación e Innovación Biomédica, Universidad de los Andes, Santiago, Chile
| | - Francisco Nualart
- Departamento de Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile; Centro de Microscopía Avanzada, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Luciano Ferrada
- Centro de Microscopía Avanzada, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Gary J Smith
- Department of Urology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Alejandro S Godoy
- Centro de Biología Celular y Biomedicina, Universidad San Sebastián, Santiago, Chile; Department of Urology, Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, NY, USA.
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Liang RJ, Taylor S, Nahiyaan N, Song J, Murphy CJ, Dantas E, Cheng S, Hsu TW, Ramsamooj S, Grover R, Hwang SK, Ngo B, Cantley LC, Rhee KY, Goncalves MD. GLUT5 (SLC2A5) enables fructose-mediated proliferation independent of ketohexokinase. Cancer Metab 2021; 9:12. [PMID: 33762003 PMCID: PMC7992954 DOI: 10.1186/s40170-021-00246-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fructose is an abundant source of carbon and energy for cells to use for metabolism, but only certain cell types use fructose to proliferate. Tumor cells that acquire the ability to metabolize fructose have a fitness advantage over their neighboring cells, but the proteins that mediate fructose metabolism in this context are unknown. Here, we investigated the determinants of fructose-mediated cell proliferation. METHODS Live cell imaging and crystal violet assays were used to characterize the ability of several cell lines (RKO, H508, HepG2, Huh7, HEK293T (293T), A172, U118-MG, U87, MCF-7, MDA-MB-468, PC3, DLD1 HCT116, and 22RV1) to proliferate in fructose (i.e., the fructolytic ability). Fructose metabolism gene expression was determined by RT-qPCR and western blot for each cell line. A positive selection approach was used to "train" non-fructolytic PC3 cells to utilize fructose for proliferation. RNA-seq was performed on parental and trained PC3 cells to find key transcripts associated with fructolytic ability. A CRISPR-cas9 plasmid containing KHK-specific sgRNA was transfected in 293T cells to generate KHK-/- cells. Lentiviral transduction was used to overexpress empty vector, KHK, or GLUT5 in cells. Metabolic profiling was done with seahorse metabolic flux analysis as well as LC/MS metabolomics. Cell Titer Glo was used to determine cell sensitivity to 2-deoxyglucose in media containing either fructose or glucose. RESULTS We found that neither the tissue of origin nor expression level of any single gene related to fructose catabolism determine the fructolytic ability. However, cells cultured chronically in fructose can develop fructolytic ability. SLC2A5, encoding the fructose transporter, GLUT5, was specifically upregulated in these cells. Overexpression of GLUT5 in non-fructolytic cells enabled growth in fructose-containing media across cells of different origins. GLUT5 permitted fructose to flux through glycolysis using hexokinase (HK) and not ketohexokinase (KHK). CONCLUSIONS We show that GLUT5 is a robust and generalizable driver of fructose-dependent cell proliferation. This indicates that fructose uptake is the limiting factor for fructose-mediated cell proliferation. We further demonstrate that cellular proliferation with fructose is independent of KHK.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger J Liang
- Division of Endocrinology, Weill Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
- Meyer Cancer Center, Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Samuel Taylor
- Division of Endocrinology, Weill Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
- Meyer Cancer Center, Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
- Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
- Weill Cornell/Rockefeller/Sloan Kettering Tri-I MD-PhD program, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Navid Nahiyaan
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Weill Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Junho Song
- Meyer Cancer Center, Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Charles J Murphy
- Center for Molecular Oncology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, 10065, USA
- Department of Pathology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Ezequiel Dantas
- Division of Endocrinology, Weill Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Shuyuan Cheng
- Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Ting-Wei Hsu
- Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Shakti Ramsamooj
- Division of Endocrinology, Weill Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
- Meyer Cancer Center, Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Rahul Grover
- Weill Cornell Medical College, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Seo-Kyoung Hwang
- Division of Endocrinology, Weill Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
- Meyer Cancer Center, Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Bryan Ngo
- Meyer Cancer Center, Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
- Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Lewis C Cantley
- Meyer Cancer Center, Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Kyu Y Rhee
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Weill Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Marcus D Goncalves
- Division of Endocrinology, Weill Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA.
- Meyer Cancer Center, Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA.
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Muciño-Olmos EA, Vázquez-Jiménez A, López-Esparza DE, Maldonado V, Valverde M, Resendis-Antonio O. MicroRNAs Regulate Metabolic Phenotypes During Multicellular Tumor Spheroids Progression. Front Oncol 2021; 10:582396. [PMID: 33425736 PMCID: PMC7793838 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.582396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
During tumor progression, cancer cells rewire their metabolism to face their bioenergetic demands. In recent years, microRNAs (miRNAs) have emerged as regulatory elements that inhibit the translation and stability of crucial mRNAs, some of them causing direct metabolic alterations in cancer. In this study, we investigated the relationship between miRNAs and their targets mRNAs that control metabolism, and how this fine-tuned regulation is diversified depending on the tumor stage. To do so, we implemented a paired analysis of RNA-seq and small RNA-seq in a breast cancer cell line (MCF7). The cell line was cultured in multicellular tumor spheroid (MCTS) and monoculture conditions. For MCTS, we selected two-time points during their development to recapitulate a proliferative and quiescent stage and contrast their miRNA and mRNA expression patterns associated with metabolism. As a result, we identified a set of new direct putative regulatory interactions between miRNAs and metabolic mRNAs representative for proliferative and quiescent stages. Notably, our study allows us to suggest that miR-3143 regulates the carbon metabolism by targeting hexokinase-2. Also, we found that the overexpression of several miRNAs could directly overturn the expression of mRNAs that control glycerophospholipid and N-Glycan metabolism. While this set of miRNAs downregulates their expression in the quiescent stage, the same set is upregulated in proliferative stages. This last finding suggests an additional metabolic switch of the above mentioned metabolic pathways between the quiescent and proliferative stages. Our results contribute to a better understanding of how miRNAs modulate the metabolic landscape in breast cancer MCTS, which eventually will help to design new strategies to mitigate cancer phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erick Andrés Muciño-Olmos
- Human Systems Biology Lab, National Institute of Genomic Medicine, Mexico City, Mexico.,PhD Program in Biomedical Sciences, UNAM, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Aarón Vázquez-Jiménez
- Human Systems Biology Lab, National Institute of Genomic Medicine, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Diana Elena López-Esparza
- Unidad de Investigación en Reproducción Humana, Instituto Nacional de Perinatología "Isidro Espinosa de los Reyes"-Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Vilma Maldonado
- Epigenetic Laboratory, Instituto Nacional de Medicina Genómica, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Mahara Valverde
- Department of Genomic Medicine and Environmental Toxicology, Institute for Biomedical Research, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Osbaldo Resendis-Antonio
- Human Systems Biology Lab, National Institute of Genomic Medicine, Mexico City, Mexico.,Coordinación de La Investigación Científica -Red de Apoyo a La Investigación, UNAM, Mexico City, Mexico
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Abstract
The interest in fructose metabolism is based on the observation that an increased dietary fructose consumption leads to an increased risk of obesity and metabolic syndrome. In particular, obesity is a known risk factor to develop many types of cancer and there is clinical and experimental evidence that an increased fructose intake promotes cancer growth. The precise mechanism, however, in which fructose induces tumor growth is still not fully understood. In this article, we present an overview of the metabolic pathways that utilize fructose and how fructose metabolism can sustain cancer cell proliferation. Although the degradation of fructose shares many of the enzymes and metabolic intermediates with glucose metabolism through glycolysis, glucose and fructose are metabolized differently. We describe the different metabolic fates of fructose carbons and how they are connected to lipogenesis and nucleotide synthesis. In addition, we discuss how the endogenous production of fructose from glucose via the polyol pathway can be beneficial for cancer cells.
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Ketohexokinase-A acts as a nuclear protein kinase that mediates fructose-induced metastasis in breast cancer. Nat Commun 2020; 11:5436. [PMID: 33116123 PMCID: PMC7595112 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-19263-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Harmful effects of high fructose intake on health have been widely reported. Although fructose is known to promote cancer, little is known about the underlying mechanisms. Here, we found that fructose triggers breast cancer metastasis through the ketohexokinase-A signaling pathway. Molecular experiments showed that ketohexokinase-A, rather than ketohexokinase-C, is necessary and sufficient for fructose-induced cell invasion. Ketohexokinase-A-overexpressing breast cancer was found to be highly metastatic in fructose-fed mice. Mechanistically, cytoplasmic ketohexokinase-A enters into the nucleus during fructose stimulation, which is mediated by LRRC59 and KPNB1. In the nucleus, ketohexokinase-A phosphorylates YWHAH at Ser25 and the YWHAH recruits SLUG to the CDH1 promoter, which triggers cell migration. This study provides the effect of nutrition on breast cancer metastasis. High intake of fructose should be restricted in cancer patients to reduce the risk of metastasis. From a therapeutic perspective, the ketohexokinase-A signaling pathway could be a potential target to prevent cancer metastasis.
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Nakagawa T, Lanaspa MA, Millan IS, Fini M, Rivard CJ, Sanchez-Lozada LG, Andres-Hernando A, Tolan DR, Johnson RJ. Fructose contributes to the Warburg effect for cancer growth. Cancer Metab 2020; 8:16. [PMID: 32670573 PMCID: PMC7350662 DOI: 10.1186/s40170-020-00222-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Obesity and metabolic syndrome are strongly associated with cancer, and these disorders may share a common mechanism. Recently, fructose has emerged as a driving force to develop obesity and metabolic syndrome. Thus, we assume that fructose may be the mechanism to explain why obesity and metabolic syndrome are linked with cancer. Clinical and experimental evidence showed that fructose intake was associated with cancer growth and that fructose transporters are upregulated in various malignant tumors. Interestingly, fructose metabolism can be driven under low oxygen conditions, accelerates glucose utilization, and exhibits distinct effects as compared to glucose, including production of uric acid and lactate as major byproducts. Fructose promotes the Warburg effect to preferentially downregulate mitochondrial respiration and increases aerobic glycolysis that may aid metastases that initially have low oxygen supply. In the process, uric acid may facilitate carcinogenesis by inhibiting the TCA cycle, stimulating cell proliferation by mitochondrial ROS, and blocking fatty acid oxidation. Lactate may also contribute to cancer growth by suppressing fat oxidation and inducing oncogene expression. The ability of fructose metabolism to directly stimulate the glycolytic pathway may have been protective for animals living with limited access to oxygen, but may be deleterious toward stimulating cancer growth and metastasis for humans in modern society. Blocking fructose metabolism may be a novel approach for the prevention and treatment of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahiko Nakagawa
- Department of Nephrology, Rakuwakai Otowa Hospital, 2 Otowa-Chinji-cho, Yamashina-ku, Kyoto, Japan
- Department of Stem Cell Biology & Regenerative Medicine, Shiga University of Medical Science, Otsu, Japan
| | - Miguel A. Lanaspa
- Division of Renal Diseases and Hypertension, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO USA
| | - Inigo San Millan
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Diabetes, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, USA
| | - Mehdi Fini
- University of Colorado Cancer Center, Aurora, CO USA
| | | | - Laura G. Sanchez-Lozada
- Department of Cardio-Renal Physiopathology, Instituto Nacional de Cardiología Ignacio Chavez, 14080 Mexico City, CP Mexico
| | - Ana Andres-Hernando
- Division of Renal Diseases and Hypertension, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO USA
| | - Dean R. Tolan
- Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, MA USA
| | - Richard J. Johnson
- Division of Renal Diseases and Hypertension, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO USA
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