PDIA3-regulted inflammation and oxidative stress contribute to the traumatic brain injury (TBI) in mice

Sex hormone-binding globulin improves lipid metabolism and reduces inflammation in subcutaneous adipose tissue of metabolic syndrome-affected horses

Equine metabolic syndrome (EMS) is a steadily growing endocrine disorder representing a real challenge in veterinary practice. As a multifactorial condition, EMS is characterized by three main metabolic abnormalities including insulin resistance, increased adiposity or obesity and hoof laminitis. Adipose tissue dysfunction is recognized as a core pathophysiological determinant of EMS, as it strongly participates to lipotoxicity and systemic metaflammation, both of which have been closely linked to the development of generalized insulin resistance. Besides, sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) is an important sex steroids transporters that has been recently proposed as an important metabolic mediator. Therefore, the aim of this study was to verify whether SHBG treatment may ameliorate subcutaneous adipose tissue metabolic failure under EMS condition in terms of lipidome homeostasis, lipid metabolism programs, insulin signalling and local inflammation. Subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) biopsies were collected post-mortem from healthy (n = 3) and EMS (n = 3) slaughtered horses. SHBG protein has been applied to SAT samples from EMS horses for 24 h at a final concentration of 50 nM, while control groups (healthy and untreated EMS) were cultured in the presence of SHBG-vehicle only. Tissues from all groups were afterwards secured for downstream analysis of gene expression using RT-qPCR, protein levels by Western blot and ELISA assay and lipidomics through GC-MS technique. Obtained results showcased that SHBG intervention efficiently normalized the altered fatty acids (FAs) profiles by lowering the accumulation of saturated and trans FAs, as well as the pro-inflammatory arachidonic and linoleic acids. Moreover, SHBG showed promising value for the regulation of adipocyte lipolysis and engorgement by lowering the levels of perilipin-1. SHBG exerted moderated effect toward SCD1 and FASN enzymes expression, but increased the LPL abundance. Interestingly, SHBG exhibited a negative regulatory effect on pro-adipogenic stimulators and induced higher expression of KLF3, IRF3 and β-catenin, known as strong adipogenesis repressors. Finally, SHBG protein showed remarkable ability in restoring the insulin signal transduction, IR/IRS/Pi3K/AKT phosphorylation events and GLUT4 transporter abundance, and further attenuate pro-inflammatory response by lowering IL-6 tissue levels and targeting the PDIA3/ERK axis. Overall, the obtained data clearly demonstrate the benefice of SHBG treatment in the regulation of adipose tissue metabolism in the course of EMS and provide new insights for the development of molecular therapies with potential translational application to human metabolic disorders.

Maternal vitamin D status and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), an under diagnosed risk factor; A review

Vitamin D is important to mediate several brain processes such as proliferation, apoptosis, and neurotransmission in early stages of life. Vitamin D deficiency during critical periods of development can lead to persistent brain alterations. Vitamin D homeostasis during pregnancy is affected by two factors which includes an increase in mother’s calcitriol levels and an increase in mother’s Vitamin D Binding protein concentrations. Attention deficient hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is an outcome of a complicated interaction between genetic, environmental, and developmental traits, and genetic factors cover about 80% of the cases. The efficiency of the immune system can be altered by a deficiency of Vitamin D in maternal body and maternal stress during gestation such as perinatal depression. Studies have proved that during gestation if there is a deficiency of vitamin D in maternal body, it can influence the brain development of the fetus and can also alter the synthesis of the brain-derived neurotropic factor. The current manuscript has been compiled to elaborate different factors which are associated with ADHD particularly focusing on the relationship of vitamin D deficiency in mothers. References material was selected from NCBI (PUBMED), Science direct, Google scholar, Publons etc. Using the terms ADHD, Vitamin D and Maternal nutritional status. Although, controversial relationship was found between the deficiency of Vitamin D level in pregnant women and development of ADHD in children but more controlled trials are required for future direction as well as to rule out other associated causes.

Astrocyte-mediated mechanisms contribute to traumatic brain injury pathology

Astrocytes respond to traumatic brain injury (TBI) with changes to their molecular make-up and cell biology, which results in changes in astrocyte function. These changes can be adaptive, initiating repair processes in the brain, or detrimental, causing secondary damage including neuronal death or abnormal neuronal activity. The response of astrocytes to TBI is often-but not always-accompanied by the upregulation of intermediate filaments, including glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and vimentin. Because GFAP is often upregulated in the context of nervous system disturbance, reactive astrogliosis is sometimes treated as an "all-or-none" process. However, the extent of astrocytes' cellular, molecular, and physiological adjustments is not equal for each TBI type or even for each astrocyte within the same injured brain. Additionally, new research highlights that different neurological injuries and diseases result in entirely distinctive and sometimes divergent astrocyte changes. Thus, extrapolating findings on astrocyte biology from one pathological context to another is problematic. We summarize the current knowledge about astrocyte responses specific to TBI and point out open questions that the field should tackle to better understand how astrocytes shape TBI outcomes. We address the astrocyte response to focal versus diffuse TBI and heterogeneity of reactive astrocytes within the same brain, the role of intermediate filament upregulation, functional changes to astrocyte function including potassium and glutamate homeostasis, blood-brain barrier maintenance and repair, metabolism, and reactive oxygen species detoxification, sex differences, and factors influencing astrocyte proliferation after TBI. This article is categorized under: Neurological Diseases > Molecular and Cellular Physiology.

Proteomics of the astrocyte secretome reveals changes in their response to soluble oligomeric Aβ

Astrocytes associate with amyloid plaques in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Astrocytes react to changes in the brain environment, including increasing concentrations of amyloid-β (Aβ). However, the precise response of astrocytes to soluble small Aβ oligomers at concentrations similar to those present in the human brain has not been addressed. In this study, we exposed astrocytes to media from neurons that express the human amyloid precursor protein (APP) transgene with the double Swedish mutation (APPSwe), and which contains APP-derived fragments, including soluble human Aβ oligomers. We then used proteomics to investigate changes in the astrocyte secretome. Our data show dysregulated secretion of astrocytic proteins involved in the extracellular matrix and cytoskeletal organization and increase secretion of proteins involved in oxidative stress responses and those with chaperone activity. Several of these proteins have been identified in previous transcriptomic and proteomic studies using brain tissue from human AD and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Our work highlights the relevance of studying astrocyte secretion to understand the brain response to AD pathology and the potential use of these proteins as biomarkers for the disease.

CDDO-Me Abrogates Aberrant Mitochondrial Elongation in Clasmatodendritic Degeneration by Regulating NF-κB-PDI-Mediated S-Nitrosylation of DRP1

Clasmatodendrosis is a kind of astroglial degeneration pattern which facilitates excessive autophagy. Although abnormal mitochondrial elongation is relevant to this astroglial degeneration, the underlying mechanisms of aberrant mitochondrial dynamics are still incompletely understood. Protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) is an oxidoreductase in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Since PDI expression is downregulated in clasmatodendritic astrocytes, PDI may be involved in aberrant mitochondrial elongation in clasmatodendritic astrocytes. In the present study, 26% of CA1 astrocytes showed clasmatodendritic degeneration in chronic epilepsy rats. 2-cyano-3,12-dioxo-oleana-1,9(11)-dien-28-oic acid methyl ester (CDDO-Me; bardoxolone methyl or RTA 402) and SN50 (a nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) inhibitor) ameliorated the fraction of clasmatodendritic astrocytes to 6.8 and 8.1% in CA1 astrocytes, accompanied by the decreases in lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1 (LAMP1) expression and microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B light-chain 3 (LC3)-II/LC3-I ratio, indicating the reduced autophagy flux. Furthermore, CDDO-Me and SN50 reduced NF-κB S529 fluorescent intensity to 0.6- and 0.57-fold of vehicle-treated animal level, respectively. CDDO-Me and SN50 facilitated mitochondrial fission in CA1 astrocytes, independent of dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1) S616 phosphorylation. In chronic epilepsy rats, total PDI protein, S-nitrosylated PDI (SNO-PDI), and SNO-DRP1 levels were 0.35-, 0.34- and 0.45-fold of control level, respectively, in the CA1 region and increased CDDO-Me and SN50. Furthermore, PDI knockdown resulted in mitochondrial elongation in intact CA1 astrocytes under physiological condition, while it did not evoke clasmatodendrosis. Therefore, our findings suggest that NF-κB-mediated PDI inhibition may play an important role in clasmatodendrosis via aberrant mitochondrial elongation.

DT-010 Exerts Cardioprotective Effects by Regulating the Crosstalk between the AMPK/PGC-1α Pathway and ERp57

The AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α (PGC-1α) pathway performs a crucial role in energy metabolism and mitochondrial network. Our previous study found that DT-010, a novel danshensu (DSS) and tetramethylpyrazine (TMP) conjugate, had significant cardioprotective properties in vitro and in vivo. We also reported that ERp57 served as a major target of DSS using the chemical proteomics approach. In this article, we focus on exploring the interrelationship between the regulation of the AMPK/PGC-1α pathway and promoting ERp57 expression induced by DT-010 in tert-butylhydroperoxide- (t-BHP-) induced H9c2 cell injury. The results showed that DT-010 activated the AMPK/PGC-1α pathway and increased ERp57 protein expression. Importantly, the above phenomenon as well as the mitochondrial function can be partially reversed by siRNA-mediated ERp57 suppression. Meanwhile, silencing AMPK significantly inhibited the ERp57 expression induced by DT-010. In addition, molecular docking and kinase assay in vitro revealed that DT-010 had no direct regulation effects on AMPK activity. Taken together, DT-010 exerted cardioprotective effects by regulating the crosstalk of AMPK/PGC-1α pathway and ERp57, representing a potential therapeutic agent for ischemic heart disease.

Pterostilbene attenuates hemin-induced dysregulation of macrophage M2 polarization via Nrf2 activation in experimental hyperglycemia

Macrophages exhibit a high degree of plasticity that is physiologically relevant in wound healing, and disruption in normal macrophage response leads to delayed wound closure resulting in chronic wounds. Here, we attempt to discern macrophage responses to hemin via regulation of the nuclear factor-erythroid factor 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) that could help us better understand the pathophysiology of diabetic foot ulcers (DFU). We demonstrate the alleviation of hemin-mediated Nrf2 suppression and M2 macrophage polarization by pterostilbene (PTS), a proven Nrf2 activator. IC-21 macrophages were treated with hemin under the normoglycemic or hyperglycemic environment with or without PTS and the expression levels of various markers, such as Nrf2 and its downstream target Heme Oxygenase-1 (HO-1), CD206, Ferroportin-1 among others were analyzed using qPCR and Western blot. Our results revealed that hemin under hyperglycemia reduced Nrf2 activation and its downstream targets, M2 polarization, and the induction of a proinflammatory cellular environment, and interestingly all of these were remedied by PTS treatment. Gelatin zymography of matrix metalloproteinase2 (MMP2) expression revealed that hemin under hyperglycemic condition significantly elevated MMP2 expression, which was reversed by PTS treatment. Further proteomic analysis using liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) revealed a heightened cellular stress profile accompanying inflammation that was suppressed by PTS. This study has furthered our understanding on the role of Nrf2 in attenuating hemin-induced perturbations in macrophage responses and suggests a potential therapeutic target in the management of DFU.

Autophagy and Apoptosis in Acute Brain Injuries: From Mechanism to Treatment

Significance: Autophagy and apoptosis are two important cellular mechanisms behind brain injuries, which are severe clinical situations with increasing incidences worldwide. To search for more and better treatments for brain injuries, it is essential to deepen the understanding of autophagy, apoptosis, and their interactions in brain injuries. This article first analyzes how autophagy and apoptosis participate in the pathogenetic processes of brain injuries respectively and mutually, then summarizes some promising treatments targeting autophagy and apoptosis to show the potential clinical applications in personalized medicine and precision medicine in the future. Recent Advances: Most current studies suggest that apoptosis is detrimental to brain recovery. Several studies indicate that autophagy can cause unnecessary death of neurons after brain injuries, while others show that autophagy is beneficial for acute brain injuries (ABIs) by facilitating the removal of damaged proteins and organelles. Whether autophagy is beneficial or detrimental in ABIs depends on many factors, and the results from different research groups are diverse or even controversial, making this topic more appealing to be explored further. Critical Issues: Neuronal autophagy and apoptosis are two primary pathological processes in ABIs. How they interact with each other and how their regulations affect the outcome and prognosis of brain injuries remain uncertain, making these answers more critical. Future Directions: Insights into the interplay between autophagy and apoptosis and the accurate regulations of their balance in ABIs may promote personalized and precise treatments in the field of brain injuries. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 38, 234-257.

DEXMEDETOMIDINE PREVENTS PDIA3 DECREASE BY ACTIVATING α2-ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR TO ALLEVIATE INTESTINAL I/R IN MICE

ABSTRACT

Background: Dexmedetomidine (DEX) attenuates intestinal I/R injury, but its mechanism of action remains to be further elucidated. Protein disulfide isomerase A3 (PDIA3) has been reported as a therapeutic protein for the prevention and treatment of intestinal I/R injury. This study was to investigate whether PDIA3 is involved in intestinal protection of DEX and explore the underlying mechanisms. Methods: The potential involvement of PDIA3 in DEX attenuation of intestinal I/R injury was tested in PDIA3 Flox/Flox mice and PDIA3 conditional knockout (cKO) in intestinal epithelium mice subjected to 45 min of superior mesenteric artery occlusion followed by 4 h of reperfusion. Furthermore, the α2-adrenergic receptor (α2-AR) antagonist, yohimbine, was administered in wild-type C57BL/6N mice intestinal I/R model to investigate the role of α2-AR in the intestinal protection conferred by DEX. Results: In the present study, we identified intestinal I/R-induced obvious inflammation, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-dependent apoptosis, and oxidative stress, and all the aforementioned changes were improved by the administration of DEX. PDIA3 cKO in the intestinal epithelium have reversed the protective effects of DEX. Moreover, yohimbine also reversed the intestinal protection of DEX and downregulated the messenger RNA and protein levels of PDIA3. Conclusion: DEX prevents PDIA3 decrease by activating α2-AR to inhibit intestinal I/R-induced inflammation, ER stress-dependent apoptosis, and oxidative stress in mice.

PDIA6 involves the thermal stress response of razor clam, Sinonovacula constricta

Protein disulfide isomerases A6 (PDIA6), an oxidoreductase and isomerase, catalyzes the oxidation reduction and isomerization of disulfide bonds, and serves as molecular chaperone to prevent the buildup of misfolded proteins under various environmental insults. However, the role of PDIA6 in mollusks remains largely obscure, although its multifunctional protein has been reported in other species under adverse conditions. To fill this gap, we identified PDIA6 from the razor clam Sinonovacula constricta (ScPDIA6) and investigated its expression patterns in response to thermal stress. Tissue distribution showed that the mRNA transcript of ScPDIA6 was ubiquitously expressed in nine tested tissues. Temporal expression profiles by qPCR revealed that ScPDIA6 in the gill and mantle was significantly increased by hyper-thermic treatment. Further, Western blot and immunofluorescence indicated that ScPDIA6 was significantly upregulated by thermal treatment at the protein level. Additionally, the survival test demonstrated that the viability of E. coli cells expressing recombinant ScPDIA6 protein increased at 42 °C compared with empty vector. Overall, these findings suggested that ScPDIA6 may play a pivotal role in counteracting thermal stress. This study will provide valuable reference data resource for understanding the potential role of PDIA6 in mollusks.

Single-cell analysis of senescent epithelia reveals targetable mechanisms promoting fibrosis

Progressive fibrosis and maladaptive organ repair result in significant morbidity and millions of premature deaths annually. Senescent cells accumulate with aging and after injury and are implicated in organ fibrosis, but the mechanisms by which senescence influences repair are poorly understood. Using 2 murine models of injury and repair, we show that obstructive injury generated senescent epithelia, which persisted after resolution of the original injury, promoted ongoing fibrosis, and impeded adaptive repair. Depletion of senescent cells with ABT-263 reduced fibrosis in reversed ureteric obstruction and after renal ischemia/reperfusion injury. We validated these findings in humans, showing that senescence and fibrosis persisted after relieved renal obstruction. We next characterized senescent epithelia in murine renal injury using single-cell RNA-Seq. We extended our classification to human kidney and liver disease and identified conserved profibrotic proteins, which we validated in vitro and in human disease. We demonstrated that increased levels of protein disulfide isomerase family A member 3 (PDIA3) augmented TGF-β-mediated fibroblast activation. Inhibition of PDIA3 in vivo significantly reduced kidney fibrosis during ongoing renal injury and as such represented a new potential therapeutic pathway. Analysis of the signaling pathways of senescent epithelia connected senescence to organ fibrosis, permitting rational design of antifibrotic therapies.

Inflammation in Pulmonary Hypertension and Edema Induced by Hypobaric Hypoxia Exposure

Exposure to high altitudes generates a decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen, triggering a hypobaric hypoxic condition. This condition produces pathophysiologic alterations in an organism. In the lung, one of the principal responses to hypoxia is the development of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction (HPV), which improves gas exchange. However, when HPV is exacerbated, it induces high-altitude pulmonary hypertension (HAPH). Another important illness in hypobaric hypoxia is high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE), which occurs under acute exposure. Several studies have shown that inflammatory processes are activated in high-altitude illnesses, highlighting the importance of the crosstalk between hypoxia and inflammation. The aim of this review is to determine the inflammatory pathways involved in hypobaric hypoxia, to investigate the key role of inflammation in lung pathologies, such as HAPH and HAPE, and to summarize different anti-inflammatory treatment approaches for these high-altitude illnesses. In conclusion, both HAPE and HAPH show an increase in inflammatory cell infiltration (macrophages and neutrophils), cytokine levels (IL-6, TNF-α and IL-1β), chemokine levels (MCP-1), and cell adhesion molecule levels (ICAM-1 and VCAM-1), and anti-inflammatory treatments (decreasing all inflammatory components mentioned above) seem to be promising mitigation strategies for treating lung pathologies associated with high-altitude exposure.

Neurobiological Links between Stress, Brain Injury, and Disease

Stress, which refers to a combination of physiological, neuroendocrine, behavioral, and emotional responses to novel or threatening stimuli, is essentially a defensive adaptation under physiological conditions. However, strong and long-lasting stress can lead to psychological and pathological damage. Growing evidence suggests that patients suffering from mild and moderate brain injuries and diseases often show severe neurological dysfunction and experience severe and persistent stressful events or environmental stimuli, whether in the acute, subacute, or recovery stage. Previous studies have shown that stress has a remarkable influence on key brain regions and brain diseases. The mechanisms through which stress affects the brain are diverse, including activation of endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS), apoptosis, oxidative stress, and excitatory/inhibitory neuron imbalance, and may lead to behavioral and cognitive deficits. The impact of stress on brain diseases is complex and involves impediment of recovery, aggravation of cognitive impairment, and neurodegeneration. This review summarizes various stress models and their applications and then discusses the effects and mechanisms of stress on key brain regions—including the hippocampus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex—and in brain injuries and diseases—including Alzheimer’s disease, stroke, traumatic brain injury, and epilepsy. Lastly, this review highlights psychological interventions and potential therapeutic targets for patients with brain injuries and diseases who experience severe and persistent stressful events.

Rutaecarpine Attenuates Oxidative Stress-Induced Traumatic Brain Injury and Reduces Secondary Injury via the PGK1/KEAP1/NFR2 Signaling Pathway

The oxidative stress response caused by traumatic brain injury (TBI) leads to secondary damage in the form of tissue damage and cell death. Nuclear transcription-related factor 2 (NRF2) is a key factor in the body against oxidative stress and has an important role in combating oxidative damage in TBI neurons. In the present study, we investigated whether rutaecarpine could activate the PGK1/KEAP1/NRF2 pathway to antagonize oxidative damage in TBI neurons. We performed controlled cortical impact (CCI) surgery on mice and taken H₂O₂ treatment on PC12 cells to construct TBI models. The results of western blot showed that the expression of PGK1, KEAP and NRF2 was regulated and accompanied by altered levels of oxidative stress, and the use of rutaecarpine in the TBI model mice significantly improved cognitive dysfunction, increased antioxidant capacity and reduced apoptosis in brain tissue. Similar antioxidant damage results were obtained using rutaecarpine in a PC12 cell model. Furthermore, through the use of the protein synthesis inhibitor CHX and the proteasome synthesis inhibitor MG-132, rutaecarpine was found to promote the expreesions of PGK1 and NRF2 by accelerating PGK1 ubiquitination to reduce PGK1 expression. Therefore, rutaecarpine may be a promising therapeutic agent for the treatment of TBI-related neuro-oxidative damage.

ERp57/PDIA3: new insight

The ERp57/PDIA3 protein is a pleiotropic member of the PDIs family and, although predominantly located in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), has indeed been found in other cellular compartments, such as the nucleus or the cell membrane. ERp57/PDIA3 is an important research target considering it can be found in various subcellular locations. This protein is involved in many different physiological and pathological processes, and our review describes new data on its functions and summarizes some ligands identified as PDIA3-specific inhibitors.

Protein disulfide-isomerase A3 knockdown attenuates oxidized low-density lipoprotein-induced oxidative stress, inflammation and endothelial dysfunction in human umbilical vein endothelial cells by downregulating activating transcription factor 2

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease implicated in oxidative stress and endothelial dysfunction. Protein disulfide-isomerase A3 (PDIA3) has been reported to regulate oxidative stress and suppress inflammation. This study aimed to explore the function of PDIA3 in atherosclerosis and the underlying mechanisms. PDIA3 expression in oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL)-induced human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) was detected using RT-qPCR and Western blotting. Following PDIA3 knockdown through transfection with small interfering RNA targeting PDIA3, cell viability, oxidative stress and inflammation in ox-LDL-induced HUVECs was examined using a Cell Counting Kit-8, corresponding kits and ELISA, respectively. The levels of CD31, α-smooth muscle, iNOS, p-eNOS, eNOS and NO were assessed using RT-qPCR, Western blotting and an NO kit to reflect endothelial dysfunction in ox-LDL-induced HUVECs. The relationship between PDIA3 and the activating transcription factor 2 (ATF2) was confirmed using co-immunoprecipitation. In addition, ATF2 expression was examined following PDIA3 silencing. The results indicated that PDIA3 was highly expressed in ox-LDL-induced HUVECs. PDIA3 silencing increased cell viability, and reduced oxidative stress and inflammation, as evidenced by the decreased levels of reactive oxygen species, malondialdehyde, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6, and increased superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activity. In addition, PDIA3 deletion improved endothelial dysfunction. PDIA3 interacted with ATF2, and PDIA3 deletion downregulated ATF2 expression. Furthermore, ATF2 overexpression reversed the effects of PDIA3 knockdown on ox-LDL-induced damage of HUVECs. Collectively, PDIA3 knockdown was found to attenuate ox-LDL-induced oxidative stress, inflammation and endothelial dysfunction in HUVECs by downregulating ATF2 expression, showing promise for the future treatment of atherosclerosis.

PDIA3 inhibits mitochondrial respiratory function in brain endothelial cells and C. elegans through STAT3 signaling and decreases survival after OGD

BACKGROUND

Protein disulfide isomerase A3 (PDIA3, also named GRP58, ER-60, ERp57) is conserved across species and mediates protein folding in the endoplasmic reticulum. PDIA3 is, reportedly, a chaperone for STAT3. However, the role of PDIA3 in regulating mitochondrial bioenergetics and STAT3 phosphorylation at serine 727 (S727) has not been described.

METHODS

Mitochondrial respiration was compared in immortalized human cerebral microvascular cells (CMEC) wild type or null for PDIA3 and in whole organism C. Elegans WT or null for pdi-3 (worm homologue). Mitochondrial morphology and cell signaling pathways in PDIA3-/- and WT cells were assessed. PDIA3-/- cells were subjected to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) to determine the effects of PDIA3 on cell survival after injury.

RESULTS

We show that PDIA3 gene deletion using CRISPR-Cas9 in cultured CMECs leads to an increase in mitochondrial bioenergetic function. In C. elegans, gene deletion or RNAi knockdown of pdi-3 also increased respiratory rates, confirming a conserved role for this gene in regulating mitochondrial bioenergetics. The PDIA3-/- bioenergetic phenotype was reversed by overexpression of WT PDIA3 in cultured PDIA3-/- CMECs. PDIA3-/- and siRNA knockdown caused an increase in phosphorylation of the S727 residue of STAT3, which is known to promote mitochondrial bioenergetic function. Increased respiration in PDIA3-/- CMECs was reversed by a STAT3 inhibitor. In PDIA3-/- CMECs, mitochondrial membrane potential and reactive oxygen species production, but not mitochondrial mass, was increased, suggesting an increased mitochondrial bioenergetic capacity. Finally, PDIA3-/- CMECs were more resistant to oxygen-glucose deprivation, while STAT3 inhibition reduced the protective effect.

CONCLUSIONS

We have discovered a novel role for PDIA3 in suppressing mitochondrial bioenergetic function by inhibiting STAT3 S727 phosphorylation.

Role of Vitamin D in Cognitive Dysfunction: New Molecular Concepts and Discrepancies between Animal and Human Findings

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

increasing evidence suggests that besides the several metabolic, endocrine, and immune functions of 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25(OH)2D), the neuronal effects of 1,25(OH)2D should also be considered an essential contributor to the development of cognition in the early years and its maintenance in aging. The developmental disabilities induced by vitamin D deficiency (VDD) include neurological disorders (e.g., attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, schizophrenia) characterized by cognitive dysfunction. On the other hand, VDD has frequently been associated with dementia of aging and neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Alzheimer's, Parkinson's disease).

RECENT FINDINGS

various cells (i.e., neurons, astrocytes, and microglia) within the central nervous system (CNS) express vitamin D receptors (VDR). Moreover, some of them are capable of synthesizing and catabolizing 1,25(OH)2D via 25-hydroxyvitamin D 1alpha-hydroxylase (CYP27B1) and 25-hydroxyvitamin D 24-hydroxylase (CYP24A1) enzymes, respectively. Both 1,25(OH)2D and 25-hydroxyvitamin D were determined from different areas of the brain and their uneven distribution suggests that vitamin D signaling might have a paracrine or autocrine nature in the CNS. Although both cholecalciferol and 25-hydroxyvitamin D pass the blood-brain barrier, the influence of supplementation has not yet demonstrated to have a direct impact on neuronal functions. So, this review summarizes the existing evidence for the action of vitamin D on cognitive function in animal models and humans and discusses the possible pitfalls of therapeutic clinical translation.

Proteomic and transcriptional changes associated with MeCP2 dysfunction reveal nodes for therapeutic intervention in Rett syndrome

Mutations in the methyl-CpG binding protein 2 (MECP2) gene cause Rett syndrome (RTT), an X-linked neurodevelopmental disorder predominantly impacting females. MECP2 is an epigenetic transcriptional regulator acting mainly to repress gene expression, though it plays multiple gene regulatory roles and has distinct molecular targets across different cell types and specific developmental stages. In this review, we summarize MECP2 loss-of-function associated transcriptome and proteome disruptions, delving deeper into the latter which have been comparatively severely understudied. These disruptions converge on multiple biochemical and cellular pathways, including those involved in synaptic function and neurodevelopment, NF-κB signaling and inflammation, and the vitamin D pathway. RTT is a complex neurological disorder characterized by myriad physiological disruptions, in both the central nervous system and peripheral systems. Thus, treating RTT will likely require a combinatorial approach, targeting multiple nodes within the interactomes of these cellular pathways. To this end, we discuss the use of dietary supplements and factors, namely, vitamin D and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), as possible partial therapeutic agents given their demonstrated benefit in RTT and their ability to restore homeostasis to multiple disrupted cellular pathways simultaneously. Further unravelling the complex molecular alterations induced by MECP2 loss-of-function, and contextualizing them at the level of proteome homeostasis, will identify new therapeutic avenues for this complex disorder.

Genetic Modulators of Traumatic Brain Injury in Animal Models and the Impact of Sex-Dependent Effects

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major health problem causing disability and death worldwide. There is no effective treatment, due in part to the complexity of the injury pathology and factors affecting its outcome. The extent of brain injury depends on the type of insult, age, sex, lifestyle, genetic risk factors, socioeconomic status, other co-injuries, and underlying health problems. This review discusses the genes that have been directly tested in TBI models, and whether their effects are known to be sex-dependent. Sex differences can affect the incidence, symptom onset, pathology, and clinical outcomes following injury. Adult males are more susceptible at the acute phase and females show greater injury in the chronic phase. TBI is not restricted to a single sex; despite variations in the degree of symptom onset and severity, it is important to consider both female and male animals in TBI pre-clinical research studies.

Quantitative proteomic analysis of trachea in fatting pig exposed to ammonia

Ammonia (NH₃) is considered as the main pollutant in livestock houses and air environment, and its adverse effects on animal and human health have attracted widespread attention. However, trachea proteomics respond to NH₃ is lacking, which is crucial to understanding how NH₃ induces respiratory damage. In this study, we performed labeled quantitative proteomic (TMT-MS) analysis in the trachea of fatting pigs exposed to NH₃ for 30 days. The proteomic results were then validated by Immunohistochemistry (IHC) and Parallel Reaction Monitoring (PRM). The results showed that a total of 126 differentially abundant proteins (DAPs) were identified (fold change <0.83 or > 1.2 and P < 0.05), including 70 differentially up-regulated proteins (DUPs) and 56 differentially down-regulated proteins (DDPs). These proteins were mainly located in intracellular regions and involved in immune response, metabolism and protein synthesis. The results of DAPs (EHHADH, RPL28, SLC25A6, TUBB6, CD14, CTSS, RPS11, RPL19, SLC25A5, RPS8, FABP3, RPL21, RPL34, RPL32, PDIA3, FBP1, HSPH1, SAR1A and SEC24C) verified by IHC and PRM were consistent with the proteomic results. The results of this study provided a basis and a novel insight for understanding the mechanism of NH₃-induced tracheal injury. SIGNIFICANCE: Ammonia (NH₃) is considered as the main pollutant in livestock houses and air environment, and its adverse effects on animal and human health have attracted widespread attention. However, trachea proteomics respond to NH₃ is lacking, which is crucial to understanding how NH₃ induces respiratory damage. Therefore, in this study, labeled quantitative proteomics (TMT-MS) was used to detect trachea tissue samples from finishing pigs in NH₃ exposure group and control group, and PRM method was used to further verify the highly abundant proteins in NH₃ exposure samples, so as to identify new diagnostic markers for NH₃ poisoning. The results of this study provided a basis and a novel insight for understanding the molecular pathological mechanism of NH₃-induced tracheal injury.

Mechanism of ARPP21 antagonistic intron miR-128 on neurological function repair after stroke

OBJECTIVE

Stroke is a cerebrovascular disorder that often causes neurological function defects. ARPP21 is a conserved host gene of miR-128 controlling neurodevelopmental functions. This study investigated the mechanism of ARPP21 antagonistic intron miR-128 on neurological function repair after stroke.

METHODS

Expressions of ARPP21 and miR-128 in stroke patients were detected. The mouse neurons and astrocytes were cultured in vitro and treated with oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). The OGD-treated cells were transfected with pc-ARPP21 and miR-128 mimic. The proliferation of astrocytes, and the apoptosis of neurons and astrocytes were detected, and inflammatory factors of astrocytes were measured. The binding relationship between miR-128 and CREB1 was verified. The rat model of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) was established. ARPP21 expression in model rats was detected. The effects of pc-ARPP21 on neuron injury, brain edema volume, and cerebral infarct in rats were observed.

RESULTS

ARPP21 expression was downregulated and miR-128 expression was upregulated in stroke patients. pc-ARPP21 facilitated the proliferation of astrocytes and inhibited apoptosis of neurons and astrocytes, and reduced inflammation of astrocytes. miR-128 mimic could reverse these effects of pc-ARPP21 on neurons and astrocytes. miR-128 targeted CREB1 and reduced BDNF secretion. In vitro experiments confirmed that ARPP21 expression was decreased in MCAO rats, and pc-ARPP21 promoted neurological function repair after stroke.

CONCLUSION

ARPP21 upregulated CREB1 and BDNF expressions by antagonizing miR-128, thus inhibiting neuronal apoptosis and promoting neurological function repair after stroke. This study may offer a novel target for the management of stroke.

Pathophysiological Responses and Roles of Astrocytes in Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is immediate damage caused by a blow to the head resulting from traffic accidents, falls, and sporting activity, which causes death or serious disabilities in survivors. TBI induces multiple secondary injuries, including neuroinflammation, disruption of the blood–brain barrier (BBB), and brain edema. Despite these emergent conditions, current therapies for TBI are limited or insufficient in some cases. Although several candidate drugs exerted beneficial effects in TBI animal models, most of them failed to show significant effects in clinical trials. Multiple studies have suggested that astrocytes play a key role in the pathogenesis of TBI. Increased reactive astrocytes and astrocyte-derived factors are commonly observed in both TBI patients and experimental animal models. Astrocytes have beneficial and detrimental effects on TBI, including promotion and restriction of neurogenesis and synaptogenesis, acceleration and suppression of neuroinflammation, and disruption and repair of the BBB via multiple bioactive factors. Additionally, astrocytic aquaporin-4 is involved in the formation of cytotoxic edema. Thus, astrocytes are attractive targets for novel therapeutic drugs for TBI, although astrocyte-targeting drugs have not yet been developed. This article reviews recent observations of the roles of astrocytes and expected astrocyte-targeting drugs in TBI.

Sirtuin 1 alleviates neuroinflammation-induced apoptosis after traumatic brain injury

Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) plays a very important role in a wide range of biological responses, such as metabolism, inflammation and cell apoptosis. Changes in the levels of SIRT1 have been detected in the brain after traumatic brain injury (TBI). Further, SIRT1 has shown a neuroprotective effect in some models of neuronal death; however, its role and working mechanisms are not well understood in the model of TBI. This study aimed to address this issue. SIRT1-specific inhibitor (sirtinol) and activator (A3) were introduced to explore the role of SIRT1 in cell apoptosis. Results of the study suggest that SIRT1 plays an important role in neuronal apoptosis after TBI by inhibiting NF-κB, IL-6 and TNF-α deacetylation and the apoptotic pathway sequentially, possibly by alleviating neuroinflammation.

Neuroprotective effect of hydrogen sulfide against glutamate-induced oxidative stress is mediated via the p53/glutaminase 2 pathway after traumatic brain injury

Several reports suggest that hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) exerts multiple biological and physiological effects on the pathogenesis of traumatic brain injury (TBI). However, the exact molecular mechanism involved in this effect is not yet fully known. In this study, we found that H₂S alleviated TBI-induced motor and spatial memory deficits, brain pathology, and brain edema. Moreover, sodium hydrosulfide (NaHS), an H₂S donor, treatment markedly increased the expression of Bcl-2, while inhibited the expression of Bax and Cleaved caspase-3 in TBI-challenged rats. Tunnel staining also demonstrated these results. Treatment with NaHS significantly reduced the glutamate and glutaminase 2 (GLS-2) protein levels, and glutamate-mediated oxidative stress in TBI-challenged rats. Furthermore, we demonstrated that H₂S treatment inhibited glutamate-mediated oxidative stress through the p53/GLS-2 pathway. Therefore, our results suggested that H₂S protects brain injury induced by TBI through modulation of the glutamate-mediated oxidative stress in the p53/GLS-2 pathway-dependent manner.