Yellow submarine of the Wnt/Frizzled signaling: submerging from the G protein harbor to the targets

Unraveling the crosstalk: circRNAs and the wnt signaling pathway in cancers of the digestive system

Circular RNA (circRNA) is a unique type of noncoding RNA molecule characterized by its closed-loop structure. Functionally versatile, circRNAs play pivotal roles in gene expression regulation, protein activity modulation, and participation in cell signaling processes. In the context of cancers of the digestive system, the Wnt signaling pathway holds particular significance. Anomalous activation of the Wnt pathway serves as a primary catalyst for the development of colorectal cancer. Extensive research underscores the notable participation of circRNAs associated with the Wnt pathway in the progression of digestive system tumors. These circRNAs exhibit pronounced dysregulation across esophageal cancer, gastric cancer, liver cancer, colorectal cancer, pancreatic cancer, and cholangiocarcinoma. Furthermore, the altered expression of circRNAs linked to the Wnt pathway correlates with prognostic factors in digestive system tumors. Additionally, circRNAs related to the Wnt pathway showcase potential as diagnostic, therapeutic, and prognostic markers within the realm of digestive system tumors. This comprehensive review outlines the interplay between circRNAs and the Wnt signaling pathway in cancers of the digestive system. It seeks to provide a comprehensive perspective on their association while delving into ongoing research that explores the clinical applications of circRNAs associated with the Wnt pathway.

Cells of the tumor microenvironment speak the Wnt language

Wnt signaling plays numerous functions in cancer, from primary transformation and tumor growth to metastasis. In addition to these cancer cell-intrinsic functions, Wnt signaling emerges to critically control cross-communication among cancer cells and the tumor microenvironment (TME). Here, we summarize the evidence that not only multiple cancer cell types, but also cells constituting the TME 'speak the Wnt language'. Fibroblasts, macrophages, endothelia, and lymphocytes all use the Wnt language to convey messages to and from cancer cells and among themselves; these messages are important for tumor progression and fate. Decoding this language will advance our understanding of tumor biology and unveil novel therapeutic avenues.

Biomaterial-based platforms for modulating immune components against cancer and cancer stem cells

Immunotherapy involves the therapeutic alteration of the patient's immune system to identify, target, and eliminate cancer cells. Dendritic cells, macrophages, myeloid-derived suppressor cells, and regulatory T cells make up the tumor microenvironment. In cancer, these immune components (in association with some non-immune cell populations like cancer-associated fibroblasts) are directly altered at a cellular level. By dominating immune cells with molecular cross-talk, cancer cells can proliferate unchecked. Current clinical immunotherapy strategies are limited to conventional adoptive cell therapy or immune checkpoint blockade. Targeting and modulating key immune components presents an effective opportunity. Immunostimulatory drugs are a research hotspot, but their poor pharmacokinetics, low tumor accumulation, and non-specific systemic toxicity limit their use. This review describes the cutting-edge research undertaken in the field of nanotechnology and material science to develop biomaterials-based platforms as effective immunotherapeutics. Various biomaterial types (polymer-based, lipid-based, carbon-based, cell-derived, etc.) and functionalization methodologies for modulating tumor-associated immune/non-immune cells are explored. Additionally, emphasis has been laid on discussing how these platforms can be used against cancer stem cells, a fundamental contributor to chemoresistance, tumor relapse/metastasis, and failure of immunotherapy. Overall, this comprehensive review strives to provide up-to-date information to an audience working at the juncture of biomaterials and cancer immunotherapy. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Cancer immunotherapy possesses incredible potential and has successfully transitioned into a clinically lucrative alternative to conventional anti-cancer therapies. With new immunotherapeutics getting rapid clinical approval, fundamental problems associated with the dynamic nature of the immune system (like limited clinical response rates and autoimmunity-related adverse effects) have remained unanswered. In this context, treatment approaches that focus on modulating the compromised immune components within the tumor microenvironment have garnered significant attention amongst the scientific community. This review aims to provide a critical discussion on how various biomaterials (polymer-based, lipid-based, carbon-based, cell-derived, etc.) can be employed along with immunostimulatory agents to design innovative platforms for selective immunotherapy directed against cancer and cancer stem cells.

Chemoenzymatic Synthesis of Original Stilbene Dimers Possessing Wnt Inhibition Activity in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cells Using the Enzymatic Secretome of Botrytis cinerea Pers

The Wnt signaling pathway controls multiple events during embryonic development of multicellular animals and is carcinogenic when aberrantly activated in adults. Breast cancer and triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) in particular depend upon Wnt pathway overactivation. Despite this importance, no Wnt pathway-targeting drugs are currently available, which necessitates novel approaches to search for therapeutically relevant compounds targeting this oncogenic pathway. Stilbene analogs represent an under-explored field of therapeutic natural products research. In the present work, a library of complex stilbene derivatives was obtained through biotransformation of a mixture of resveratrol and pterostilbene using the enzymatic secretome of Botrytis cinerea. To improve the chemodiversity, the reactions were performed using i-PrOH, n-BuOH, i-BuOH, EtOH, or MeOH as cosolvents. Using this strategy, a series of 73 unusual derivatives was generated distributed among 6 scaffolds; 55 derivatives represent novel compounds. The structure of each compound isolated was determined by nuclear magnetic resonance and high-resolution mass spectrometry. The inhibitory activity of the isolated compounds against the oncogenic Wnt pathway was comprehensively quantified and correlated with their capacity to inhibit the growth of the cancer cells, leading to insights into structure-activity relationships of the derivatives. Finally, we have dissected mechanistic details of the stilbene derivatives activity within the pathway.

Isolation and Identification of Isocoumarin Derivatives With Specific Inhibitory Activity Against Wnt Pathway and Metabolome Characterization of Lasiodiplodia venezuelensis

The Wnt signaling pathway controls multiple events during embryonic development of multicellular animals and is carcinogenic when aberrantly activated in adults. Breast cancers are dependent on Wnt pathway overactivation mostly through dysregulation of pathway component protein expression, which necessitates the search for therapeutically relevant compounds targeting them. Highly diverse microorganisms as endophytes represent an underexplored field in the therapeutic natural products research. In the present work, the objective was to explore the chemical diversity and presence of selective Wnt inhibitors within a unique collection of fungi isolated as foliar endophytes from the long-lived tropical palm Astrocaryum sciophilum. The fungi were cultured, extracted with ethyl acetate, and screened for their effects on the Wnt pathway and cell proliferation. The endophytic strain Lasiodiplodia venezuelensis was prioritized for scaled-up fractionation based on its selective activity. Application of geometric transfer from analytical HPLC conditions to semi-preparative scale and use of dry load sample introduction enabled the isolation of 15 pure compounds in a single step. Among the molecules identified, five are original natural products described for the first time, and six are new to this species. An active fraction obtained by semi-preparative HPLC was re-purified by UHPLC-PDA using a 1.7 µm phenyl column. 75 injections of 8 µg were necessary to obtain sufficient amounts of each compound for structure elucidation and bioassays. Using this original approach, in addition to the two major compounds, a third minor compound identified as (R)-(-)-5-hydroxymellein (18) was obtained, which was found to be responsible for the significant Wnt inhibition activity recorded. Further studies of this compound and its structural analogs showed that only 18 acts in a highly specific manner, with no acute cytotoxicity. This compound is notably selective for upstream components of the Wnt pathway and is able to inhibit the proliferation of three triple negative breast cancer cell lines. In addition to the discovery of Wnt inhibitors of interest, this study contributes to better characterize the biosynthetic potential of L. venezuelensis.

Humanization of Drosophila Gαo to Model GNAO1 Paediatric Encephalopathies

Several hundred genes have been identified to contribute to epilepsy-the disease affecting 65 million people worldwide. One of these genes is GNAO1 encoding Gαo, the major neuronal α-subunit of heterotrimeric G proteins. An avalanche of dominant de novo mutations in GNAO1 have been recently described in paediatric epileptic patients, suffering, in addition to epilepsy, from motor dysfunction and developmental delay. Although occurring in amino acids conserved from humans to Drosophila, these mutations and their functional consequences have only been poorly analysed at the biochemical or neuronal levels. Adequate animal models to study the molecular aetiology of GNAO1 encephalopathies have also so far been lacking. As the first step towards modeling the disease in Drosophila, we here describe the humanization of the Gαo locus in the fruit fly. A two-step CRISPR/Cas9-mediated replacement was conducted, first substituting the coding exons 2-3 of Gαo with respective human GNAO1 sequences. At the next step, the remaining exons 4-7 were similarly replaced, keeping intact the gene Cyp49a1 embedded in between, as well as the non-coding exons, exon 1 and the surrounding regulatory sequences. The resulting flies, homozygous for the humanized GNAO1 loci, are viable and fertile without any visible phenotypes; their body weight, locomotion, and longevity are also normal. Human Gαo-specific antibodies confirm the endogenous-level expression of the humanized Gαo, which fully replaces the Drosophila functions. The genetic model we established will make it easy to incorporate encephalopathic GNAO1 mutations and will permit intensive investigations into the molecular aetiology of the human disease through the powerful toolkit of Drosophila genetics.

The Impact of Gut Microbiota Disorders on the Blood-Brain Barrier

The gut microbiota is symbiotic with the human host and has been extensively studied in recent years resulting in increasing awareness of the effects of the gut microbiota on human health. In this review, we summarize the current evidence for the effects of gut microbes on the integrity of the cerebral blood-brain barrier (BBB), focusing on the pathogenic impact of gut microbiota disorders. Based on our description and summarization of the effects of the gut microbiota and its metabolites on the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems and related signaling pathways and the resulting destruction of the BBB, we suggest that regulating and supplementing the intestinal microbiota as well as targeting immune cells and inflammatory mediators are required to protect the BBB.

The Canonical Wnt Signaling (Wnt/β-Catenin Pathway): A Potential Target for Cancer Prevention and Therapy

Precise regulation of signal transduction pathways is crucial for normal animal development and for maintaining cellular and tissue homeostasis in adults. The Wnt/Frizzled-mediated signaling includes canonical and non-canonical signal transduction pathways. Upregulation or downregulation of the canonical Wnt signaling (or the Wnt/β-Catenin signal transduction) leads to a variety of human diseases, including cancers, neurodegenerative disorders, skin and bone diseases, and heart deficiencies. Therefore, Wnt/β-Catenin signal transduction is a potential clinical target for the treatment of not only human cancers but also some other human chronic diseases. Here, some recent results including those from my laboratory highlighting the role of Wnt/β-Catenin signal transduction in human cancers will be reviewed. After a brief overview on canonical Wnt signaling and introducing some critical β-Catenin/T-cell factor-target genes, the interaction of canonical Wnt signaling with some common human cancers will be discussed. In the end, the different segments of the aforesaid signaling pathway, which have been considered as targets for clinical purposes, will be scrutinized.

Endosomal Wnt signaling proteins control microtubule nucleation in dendrites

Dendrite microtubules are polarized with minus-end-out orientation in Drosophila neurons. Nucleation sites concentrate at dendrite branch points, but how they localize is not known. Using Drosophila, we found that canonical Wnt signaling proteins regulate localization of the core nucleation protein γTubulin (γTub). Reduction of frizzleds (fz), arrow (low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein [LRP] 5/6), dishevelled (dsh), casein kinase Iγ, G proteins, and Axin reduced γTub-green fluorescent protein (GFP) at branch points, and two functional readouts of dendritic nucleation confirmed a role for Wnt signaling proteins. Both dsh and Axin localized to branch points, with dsh upstream of Axin. Moreover, tethering Axin to mitochondria was sufficient to recruit ectopic γTub-GFP and increase microtubule dynamics in dendrites. At dendrite branch points, Axin and dsh colocalized with early endosomal marker Rab5, and new microtubule growth initiated at puncta marked with fz, dsh, Axin, and Rab5. We propose that in dendrites, canonical Wnt signaling proteins are housed on early endosomes and recruit nucleation sites to branch points.

Small Molecule Wnt Pathway Modulators from Natural Sources: History, State of the Art and Perspectives

The Wnt signaling is one of the major pathways known to regulate embryonic development, tissue renewal and regeneration in multicellular organisms. Dysregulations of the pathway are a common cause of several types of cancer and other diseases, such as osteoporosis and rheumatoid arthritis. This makes Wnt signaling an important therapeutic target. Small molecule activators and inhibitors of signaling pathways are important biomedical tools which allow one to harness signaling processes in the organism for therapeutic purposes in affordable and specific ways. Natural products are a well known source of biologically active small molecules with therapeutic potential. In this article, we provide an up-to-date overview of existing small molecule modulators of the Wnt pathway derived from natural products. In the first part of the review, we focus on Wnt pathway activators, which can be used for regenerative therapy in various tissues such as skin, bone, cartilage and the nervous system. The second part describes inhibitors of the pathway, which are desired agents for targeted therapies against different cancers. In each part, we pay specific attention to the mechanisms of action of the natural products, to the models on which they were investigated, and to the potential of different taxa to yield bioactive molecules capable of regulating the Wnt signaling.

The physiological role of Wnt pathway in normal development and cancer

Over the decades, many studies have illustrated the critical roles of Wnt signaling pathways in both developmental processes as well as tumorigenesis. Due to the complexity of Wnt signaling regulation, there are still questions to be addressed about ways cells are able to manipulate different types of Wnt pathways in order to fulfill the requirements for normal or cancer development. In this review, we will describe different types of Wnt signaling pathways and their roles in both normal developmental processes and their role in cancer development and progression. Additionally, we will briefly introduce new strategies currently in clinical trials targeting Wnt signaling pathway components for cancer therapy.

Targeting Frizzled-7 Decreases Stemness and Chemotherapeutic Resistance in Gastric Cancer Cells by Suppressing Myc Expression

BACKGROUND Although the promoting roles of Frizzled-7 (Fzd7) have been shown before, its effects in gastric cancer (GC) cell stemness are still unclear. The present study assessed the effects of Fzd7 on GC cell stemness and chemoresistance. MATERIAL AND METHODS Clinical samples were used to detect Fzd7 expression and online datasets were used to analyze the correlation between Fzd7 expression and GC patient prognosis. Quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR), Western blot, and spheroid formation were used to detect the stemness of cells and Fzd7-mediated effects on GC cell stemness. Cell viability was assessed to evaluate the role of Fzd7 in chemoresistance of GC cells. RESULTS We found that the expression of Frizzled-7 (Fzd7), a Wnt receptor, was increased in gastric cancer (GC) cells and tissues. Additionally, Fzd7 expression was correlated with shorter overall survival of GC patients. Knockdown of Fzd7 or using inhibitors of Wnt/Fzd (OMP-18R5/Vantictumad) decreased GC cell stemness, characterized as a decrease of spheroid formation ability and expression of stemness regulators. Notably, Fzd7 knockdown or inhibitors of Wnt/Fzd attenuated the chemoresistance of GC cells. Furthermore, elevation of Myc expression rescued the effects of Fzd7 inhibition on GC cell stemness and chemoresistance. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that inhibition of Fzd7 decreases the stemness and chemotherapeutic resistance of GC cells.

Non‑canonical Wnt signaling contributes to ventilator‑induced lung injury through upregulation of WISP1 expression

Mechanical ventilation may cause ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI). Canonical Wnt signaling has been reported to serve an important role in the pathogenesis of VILI. Bioinformatics analysis revealed that canonical and non-canonical Wnt signaling pathways were activated in VILI. However, the role of non-canonical Wnt signaling in the pathogenesis of VILI remains unclear. The present study aimed to analyze the potential role of non-canonical Wnt signaling in VILI pathogenesis. Lung injury was assessed via Evans blue albumin permeability and histological scoring, as well as by inflammatory cytokine expression and total protein concentration in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. The relative protein expression of canonical and non-canonical Wnt signaling pathway components were examined via western blotting and immunohistochemistry. The results demonstrated that 6 h of mechanical ventilation at low tidal volume (LTV; 6 ml/kg) or moderate tidal volume (MTV; 12 ml/kg) induced lung injury in sensitive A/J mice. Ventilation with MTV increased the protein levels of Wnt-induced secreted protein 1 (WISP1), Rho-associated protein kinase 1 (ROCK1), phosphorylated (p)-Ras homolog gene family, member A and p-C-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). Inhibition of ROCK1 by Y27632 and JNK by SP600125 attenuated MTV-induced lung injury and decreased the expression of proteins involved in non-canonical Wnt signaling, including WISP1. In conclusion, non-canonical Wnt signaling participates in VILI by modulating WISP1 expression, which has been previously noted as critical for VILI development. Therefore, the non-canonical Wnt signaling pathway may provide a preventive and therapeutic target in VILI.

FZD5 is a Gαq-coupled receptor that exhibits the functional hallmarks of prototypical GPCRs

Frizzleds (FZDs) are a group of seven transmembrane-spanning (7TM) receptors that belong to class F of the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) superfamily. FZDs bind WNT proteins to stimulate diverse signaling cascades involved in embryonic development, stem cell regulation, and adult tissue homeostasis. Frizzled 5 (FZD₅) is one of the most studied class F GPCRs that promote the functional inactivation of the β-catenin destruction complex in response to WNTs. However, whether FZDs function as prototypical GPCRs has been heavily debated and, in particular, FZD₅ has not been shown to activate heterotrimeric G proteins. Here, we show that FZD₅ exhibited a conformational change after the addition of WNT-5A, which is reminiscent of class A and class B GPCR activation. In addition, we performed several live-cell imaging and spectrometric-based approaches, such as dual-color fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (dcFRAP) and resonance energy transfer (RET)-based assays that demonstrated that FZD₅ activated Gα_q and its downstream effectors upon stimulation with WNT-5A. Together, these findings suggest that FZD₅ is a 7TM receptor with a bona fide GPCR activation profile and suggest novel targets for drug discovery in WNT-FZD signaling.

Dishevelled enables casein kinase 1-mediated phosphorylation of Frizzled 6 required for cell membrane localization

Frizzleds (FZDs) are receptors for secreted lipoglycoproteins of the Wingless/Int-1 (WNT) family, initiating an important signal transduction network in multicellular organisms. FZDs are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), which are well known to be regulated by phosphorylation, leading to specific downstream signaling or receptor desensitization. The role and underlying mechanisms of FZD phosphorylation remain largely unexplored. Here, we investigated the phosphorylation of human FZD₆ Using MS analysis and a phospho-state- and -site-specific antibody, we found that Ser-648, located in the FZD₆ C terminus, is efficiently phosphorylated by casein kinase 1 ϵ (CK1ϵ) and that this phosphorylation requires the scaffolding protein Dishevelled (DVL). In an overexpression system, DVL1, -2, and -3 promoted CK1ϵ-mediated FZD₆ phosphorylation on Ser-648. This DVL activity required an intact DEP domain and FZD-mediated recruitment of this domain to the cell membrane. Substitution of the CK1ϵ-targeted phosphomotif reduced FZD₆ surface expression, suggesting that Ser-648 phosphorylation controls membrane trafficking of FZD₆ Phospho-Ser-648 FZD₆ immunoreactivity in human fallopian tube epithelium was predominantly apical, associated with cilia in a subset of epithelial cells, compared with the total FZD₆ protein expression, suggesting that FZD₆ phosphorylation contributes to asymmetric localization of receptor function within the cell and to epithelial polarity. Given the key role of FZD₆ in planar cell polarity, our results raise the possibility that asymmetric phosphorylation of FZD₆ rather than asymmetric protein distribution accounts for polarized receptor signaling.

Frizzleds as GPCRs - More Conventional Than We Thought!

For more than 30 years, WNT/β-catenin and planar cell polarity signaling has formed the basis for what we understand to be the primary output of the interaction between WNTs and their cognate receptors known as Frizzleds (FZDs). In the shadow of these pathways, evidence for the involvement of heterotrimeric G proteins in WNT signaling has grown substantially over the years - redefining the complexity of the WNT signaling network. Moreover, the distinct characteristics of FZD paralogs are becoming better understood, and we can now apply concepts valid for classical GPCRs to grasp FZDs as molecular machines at the interface of ligand binding and intracellular effects. This review discusses recent developments in the field of WNT/FZD signaling in the context of GPCR pharmacology, and identifies remaining mysteries with an emphasis on structural and kinetic components that support this dogma shift.

The cardiac microenvironment uses non-canonical WNT signaling to activate monocytes after myocardial infarction

A disturbed inflammatory response following myocardial infarction (MI) is associated with poor prognosis and increased tissue damage. Monocytes are key players in healing after MI, but little is known about the role of the cardiac niche in monocyte activation. This study investigated microenvironment‐dependent changes in inflammatory monocytes after MI. RNA sequencing analysis of murine Ly6C^high monocytes on day 3 after MI revealed differential regulation depending on location. Notably, the local environment strongly impacted components of the WNT signaling cascade. Analysis of WNT modulators revealed a strong upregulation of WNT Inhibitory Factor 1 (WIF1) in cardiomyocytes—but not fibroblasts or endothelial cells—upon hypoxia. Compared to wild‐type (WT) littermates, WIF1 knockout mice showed severe adverse remodeling marked by increased scar size and reduced ejection fraction 4 weeks after MI. While FACS analysis on day 1 after MI revealed no differences in neutrophil numbers, the hearts of WIF1 knockouts contained significantly more inflammatory monocytes than hearts from WT animals. Next, we induced AAV‐mediated cardiomyocyte‐specific WIF1 overexpression, which attenuated the monocyte response and improved cardiac function after MI, as compared to control‐AAV‐treated animals. Finally, WIF1 overexpression in isolated cardiomyocytes limited the activation of non‐canonical WNT signaling and led to reduced IL‐1β and IL‐6 expression in monocytes/macrophages. Taken together, we investigated the cardiac microenvironment's interaction with recruited monocytes after MI and identified a novel mechanism of monocyte activation. The local initiation of non‐canonical WNT signaling shifts the accumulating myeloid cells toward a pro‐inflammatory state and impacts healing after myocardial infarction.

Dramatic dysbalancing of the Wnt pathway in breast cancers

Wnt signaling is important for breast development and remodeling during pregnancy and lactation. Epigenetic modifications change expression levels of components of the Wnt pathway, underlying oncogenic transformation. However, no clear Wnt component increasing expression universally across breast cancer (BC) or its most Wnt-dependent triple-negative BC (TNBC) subgroup has been identified, delaying development of targeted therapies. Here we perform network correlation analysis of expression of >100 Wnt pathway components in hundreds of healthy and cancerous breast tissues. Varying in expression levels among people, Wnt components remarkably coordinate their production; this coordination is dramatically decreased in BC. Clusters with coordinated gene expression exist within the healthy cohort, highlighting Wnt signaling subtypes. Different BC subgroups are identified, characterized by different remaining Wnt signaling signatures, providing the rational for patient stratification for personalizing the therapeutic applications. Key pairwise interactions within the Wnt pathway (some inherited and some established de novo) emerge as targets for future drug discovery against BC.

Identification of Proteins Required for Precise Positioning of Apc2 in Dendrites

In Drosophila neurons, uniform minus-end-out polarity in dendrites is maintained in part by kinesin-2-mediated steering of growing microtubules at branch points. Apc links the kinesin motor to growing microtubule plus ends and Apc2 recruits Apc to branch points where it functions. Because Apc2 acts to concentrate other steering proteins to branch points, we wished to understand how Apc2 is targeted. From an initial broad candidate RNAi screen, we found Miro (a mitochondrial transport protein), Ank2, Axin, spastin and Rac1 were required to position Apc2-GFP at dendrite branch points. YFP-Ank2-L8, Axin-GFP and mitochondria also localized to branch points suggesting the screen identified relevant proteins. By performing secondary screens, we found that energy production by mitochondria was key for Apc2-GFP positioning and spastin acted upstream of mitochondria. Ank2 seems to act independently from other players, except its membrane partner, Neuroglian (Nrg). Rac1 likely acts through Arp2/3 to generate branched actin to help recruit Apc2-GFP. Axin can function in a variety of wnt signaling pathways, one of which includes heterotrimeric G proteins and Frizzleds. Knockdown of Gαs, Gαo, Fz and Fz2, reduced targeting of Apc2 and Axin to branch points. Overall our data suggest that mitochondrial energy production, Nrg/Ank2, branched actin generated by Arp2/3 and Fz/G proteins/Axin function as four modules that control localization of the microtubule regulator Apc2 to its site of action in dendrite branch points.

The curious case of Gαs gain-of-function in neoplasia

BACKGROUND

Mutations activating the α subunit of heterotrimeric Gs protein are associated with a number of highly specific pathological molecular phenotypes. One of the best characterized is the McCune Albright syndrome. The disease presents with an increased incidence of neoplasias in specific tissues.

MAIN BODY

A similar repertoire of neoplasms can develop whether mutations occur spontaneously in somatic tissues during fetal development or after birth. Glands are the most "permissive" tissues, recently found to include the entire gastrointestinal tract. High frequency of activating Gαs mutations is associated with precise diagnoses (e.g., IPMN, Pyloric gland adenoma, pituitary toxic adenoma). Typically, most neoplastic lesions, from thyroid to pancreas, remain well differentiated but may be a precursor to aggressive cancer.

CONCLUSIONS

Here we propose the possibility that gain-of-function mutations of Gαs interfere with signals in the microenvironment of permissive tissues and lead to a transversal neoplastic phenotype.

WNT signalling events near the cell membrane and their pharmacological targeting for the treatment of cancer

WNT signalling is an essential signalling pathway for all multicellular animals. Although first described more than 30 years ago, new components and regulators of the pathway are still being discovered. Considering its importance in both embryonic development and adult homeostasis, it is not surprising that this pathway is often deregulated in human diseases such as cancer. Recently, it became clear that in addition to cytoplasmic components such as β-catenin, other, membrane-bound or extracellular, components of the WNT pathway are also altered in cancer. This review gives an overview of the recent discoveries on WNT signalling events near the cell membrane. Furthermore, membrane-associated components of the WNT pathway, which are more accessible for therapeutic intervention, as well therapeutic approaches that already target those components will be discussed. In this way, we hope to stimulate the development of effective anti-cancer therapies that target this fascinating pathway.

LINKED ARTICLES

This article is part of a themed section on WNT Signalling: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Opportunities. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v174.24/issuetoc.

Golgi-Resident Gαo Promotes Protrusive Membrane Dynamics

To form protrusions like neurites, cells must coordinate their induction and growth. The first requires cytoskeletal rearrangements at the plasma membrane (PM), the second requires directed material delivery from cell's insides. We find that the Gαo-subunit of heterotrimeric G proteins localizes dually to PM and Golgi across phyla and cell types. The PM pool of Gαo induces, and the Golgi pool feeds, the growing protrusions by stimulated trafficking. Golgi-residing KDELR binds and activates monomeric Gαo, atypically for G protein-coupled receptors that normally act on heterotrimeric G proteins. Through multidimensional screenings identifying > 250 Gαo interactors, we pinpoint several basic cellular activities, including vesicular trafficking, as being regulated by Gαo. We further find small Golgi-residing GTPases Rab1 and Rab3 as direct effectors of Gαo. This KDELR → Gαo → Rab1/3 signaling axis is conserved from insects to mammals and controls material delivery from Golgi to PM in various cells and tissues.

Regulator of G protein signaling 2 (Rgs2) regulates neural crest development through Pparδ-Sox10 cascade

Neural crest cells are multipotent progenitors that migrate extensively and differentiate into numerous derivatives. The developmental plasticity and migratory ability of neural crest cells render them an attractive model for studying numerous aspects of cell progression. We observed that zebrafish rgs2 was expressed in neural crest cells. Disrupting Rgs2 expression by using a dominant negative rgs2 construct or rgs2 morpholinos reduced GTPase-activating protein activity, induced the formation of neural crest progenitors, increased the proliferation of nonectomesenchymal neural crest cells, and inhibited the formation of ectomesenchymal neural crest derivatives. The transcription of pparda (which encodes Pparδ, a Wnt-activated transcription factor) was upregulated in Rgs2-deficient embryos, and Pparδ inhibition using a selective antagonist in the Rgs2-deficient embryos repaired neural crest defects. Our results clarify the mechanism through which the Rgs2-Pparδ cascade regulates neural crest development; specifically, Pparδ directly binds to the promoter and upregulates the transcription of the neural crest specifier sox10. This study reveals a unique regulatory mechanism, the Rgs2-Pparδ-Sox10 signaling cascade, and defines a key molecular regulator, Rgs2, in neural crest development.

A Second WNT for Old Drugs: Drug Repositioning against WNT-Dependent Cancers

Aberrant WNT signaling underlies cancerous transformation and growth in many tissues, such as the colon, breast, liver, and others. Downregulation of the WNT pathway is a desired mode of development of targeted therapies against these cancers. Despite the urgent need, no WNT signaling-directed drugs currently exist, and only very few candidates have reached early phase clinical trials. Among different strategies to develop WNT-targeting anti-cancer therapies, repositioning of existing drugs previously approved for other diseases is a promising approach. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs like aspirin, the anti-leprotic clofazimine, and the anti-trypanosomal suramin are among examples of drugs having recently revealed WNT-targeting activities. In total, 16 human-use drug compounds have been found to be working through the WNT pathway and show promise for their prospective repositioning against various cancers. Advances, hurdles, and prospects of developing these molecules as potential drugs against WNT-dependent cancers, as well as approaches for discovering new ones for repositioning, are the foci of the current review.

Epithelia-derived wingless regulates dendrite directional growth of drosophila ddaE neuron through the Fz-Fmi-Dsh-Rac1 pathway

Background

Proper dendrite patterning is critical for the receiving and processing of information in the nervous system. Cell-autonomous molecules have been extensively studied in dendrite morphogenesis; however, the regulatory mechanisms of environmental factors in dendrite growth remain to be elucidated.

Results

By evaluating the angle between two primary dendrites (PD-Angle), we found that the directional growth of the primary dendrites of a Drosophila periphery sensory neuron ddaE is regulated by the morphogen molecule Wingless (Wg). During the early stage of dendrite growth, Wg is expressed in a group of epithelial cells posteriorly adjacent to ddaE. When Wg expression is reduced or shifted anteriorly, the PD-Angle is markedly decreased. Furthermore, Wg receptor Frizzled functions together with Flamingo and Dishevelled in transducing the Wg signal into ddaE neuron, and the downstream signal is mediated by non-canonical Wnt pathway through Rac1.

Conclusions

In conclusion, we reveal that epithelia-derived Wg plays a repulsive role in regulating the directional growth of dendrites through the non-canonical Wnt pathway. Thus, our findings provide strong in vivo evidence on how environmental signals serve as spatial cues for dendrite patterning.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13041-016-0228-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Secreted frizzled related protein 1 protects H9C2 cells from hypoxia/re-oxygenation injury by blocking the Wnt signaling pathway

Background

In animal models, secreted frizzled related protein 1 (Sfrp1) inhibition of the Wnt signaling pathway is beneficial because Sfrp1 reduces myocardial apoptosis and prevents heart failure. The mechanisms mediating the cellular survival effect of Sfrp1 has not been completely elucidated. The present study was designed to investigate the possible protective actions of Sfrp1 on cardiac muscle cells using an in vitro model of ischemia/reperfusion, and to evaluate the possible involvement of the Wnt signaling pathway.

Methods

We used a recombinant AAV9 vector to deliver the Sfrp1 gene into H9C2 rat cardiomyoblasts and adopted an in vitro model of ischemia/reperfusion. Cell vitality was measured by CKK-8 and the trypan blue exclusion assay. Western blot was used to evaluate the expression of Dvl-1, β-catenin, c-Myc, Bax, and Bcl-2. Flow cytometry analysis of cardiomyocyte apoptosis was performed.

Results

We confirmed that Sfrp1 significantly increased cell viability (assayed by trypan blue and CKK-8) and decreased apoptosis (assayed by flow cytometry analysis and the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio). These effects were partly attributable to the ability of Sfrp1 to down-regulate Wnt signaling pathway (assayed by Western blot to evaluate the expression of Dvl-1, β-catenin, and c-Myc). Indeed, reactivation of the Wnt signaling pathway activity with the specific activator, Licl, reduced Sfrp1-induced cardioprotection during hypoxia and reoxygenation.

Conclusions

The present study demonstrated that Sfrp1 directly protected H9C2 cells from hypoxia and reoxygenation-induced reperfusion injury and apoptosis through inhibition of the Wnt signaling pathway, and added new mechanistic insight regarding the cardioprotective role of Sfrp1 on ischemic damage.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12944-016-0240-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Inhibition of Wnt signalling and breast tumour growth by the multi-purpose drug suramin through suppression of heterotrimeric G proteins and Wnt endocytosis

Multi-purpose drug suramin is found to be active against cancer-related Wnt signalling. As a consequence of heterotrimeric G proteins suppression, suramin inhibits Wnt ligand internalization, which renders the drug active against triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC).

Wnt Signaling Inhibits Osteoclast Differentiation by Activating Canonical and Noncanonical cAMP/PKA Pathways

Although there has been extensive characterization of the Wnt signaling pathway in the osteoblast lineage, the effects of Wnt proteins on the osteoclast lineage are less well studied. We found that osteoclast lineage cells express canonical Wnt receptors. Wnt3a reduced osteoclast formation when applied to early bone-marrow macrophage (BMM) osteoclast differentiation cultures, whereas late addition did not suppress osteoclast formation. Early Wnt3a treatment inactivated the crucial transcription factor NFATc1 in osteoclast progenitors. Wnt3a led to the accumulation of nuclear β-catenin, confirming activation of canonical Wnt signaling. Reducing low-density lipoprotein receptor-related proteins (Lrp) 5 and Lrp6 protein expression prevented Wnt3a-induced inactivation of NFATc1; however, deletion of β-catenin did not block Wnt3a inactivation of NFATc1, suggesting that this effect was mediated by a noncanonical pathway. Wnt3a rapidly activated the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)/protein kinase A (PKA) pathway and pharmacological stimulation of cAMP/PKA signaling suppressed osteoclast differentiation; Wnt3a-induced NFATc1 phosphorylation was blocked by inhibiting interactions between PKA and A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs). These data indicate that Wnt3a directly suppresses osteoclast differentiation through both canonical (β-catenin) and noncanonical (cAMP/PKA) pathways in osteoclast precursors. In vivo reduction of Lrp5 and Lrp6 expressions in the early osteoclast lineage via Rank promoter Cre recombination reduced trabecular bone mass, whereas disruption of Lrp5/6 expression in late osteoclast precursors via cathepsin K (Ctsk) promoter Cre recombination did not alter the skeletal phenotype. Surprisingly, reduction of Lrp5/6 in the early osteoclast lineage decreased osteoclast numbers, as well as osteoblast numbers. Published studies have previously noted that β-catenin signaling is required for osteoclast progenitor proliferation. Our in vivo data suggest that Rank promoter Cre-mediated deletion of Lrp5/6 may similarly impair osteoclast progenitor proliferation.

Axin is expressed in mitochondria and suppresses mitochondrial ATP synthesis in HeLa cells

Many recent studies have revealed that axin is involved in numerous cellular functions beyond the negative regulation of β-catenin-dependent Wnt signaling. Previously, an association of ectopic axin with mitochondria was observed. In an effort to investigate the relationship between axin and mitochondria, we found that axin expression suppressed cellular ATP production, which was more apparent as axin expression levels increased. Also, mitochondrial expression of axin was observed using two axin-expressing HeLa cell models: doxycycline-inducible ectopic axin expression (HeLa-axin) and axin expression enhanced by long-term treatment with XAV939 (HeLa-XAV). In biochemical analysis, axin is associated with oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) complex IV and is involved in defects in the assembly of complex IV-containing supercomplexes. Functionally, axin expression reduced the activity of OXPHOS complex IV and the oxygen consumption rate (OCR), suggesting axin-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction. Subsequent studies using various inhibitors of Wnt signaling showed that the reduction in cellular ATP levels was weaker in cases of ICAT protein expression and treatment with iCRT3 or NSC668036 compared with XAV939 treatment, suggesting that XAV939 treatment affects ATP synthesis in addition to suppressing Wnt signaling activity. Axin-mediated regulation of mitochondrial function may be an additional mechanism to Wnt signaling for regulation of cell growth.

FrzA gene protects cardiomyocytes from H2O2-induced oxidative stress through restraining the Wnt/Frizzled pathway

Background

Lately, there is accumulating evidence that the Wnt/Frizzled pathway is reactivated after myocardial infarction, the inhibition of the pathway is beneficial since it reduce of myocardial apoptosis and prevents heart failure. FrzA/Sfrp-1, a secreted frizzled-related protein and antagonist for the wnt/frizzled pathway. We assessed the hypothesis that FrzA protects cardiomyocytes from H₂O₂-Induced Oxidative damage through the inhibition of Wnt/Frizzled pathway activity.

Methods

We used a recombinant AAV9 vector to deliver FrzA gene into neonatal rat ventricle myocytes and developed an oxidative stress model using H₂O₂. The cell vitality was measured by MTT colorimetric assay. Western blot and RT-PCR were used to evaluate the expressions of Dvl-1, β-catenin, c-Myc, Bax and Bcl-2. Flow cytometry analysis of cardiomyocytes apoptosis.

Results

We confirmed that Wnt/frizzled pathway is involved in H₂O₂-induced apoptosis in cardiomyocytes. Compared with controls, H₂O₂ induced the upregulation of Dvl-1, β-catenin, and c-Myc. FrzA suppressed the expression of Dvl-1, β-catenin, c-Myc and the activity of the Wnt/frizzled pathway. Furthermore, FrzA over-expression decreased the apoptotic rate, and the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio in cardiomyocytes treated with H₂O₂.

Conclusions

FrzA, through the inhibition of Wnt/Frizzled pathway activity reduced H₂O₂-induced cardiomyocytes apoptosis and could be a potential therapeutic target for prevention of cardiac oxidative damage.

Daple is a novel non-receptor GEF required for trimeric G protein activation in Wnt signaling

Wnt signaling is essential for tissue homeostasis and its dysregulation causes cancer. Wnt ligands trigger signaling by activating Frizzled receptors (FZDRs), which belong to the G-protein coupled receptor superfamily. However, the mechanisms of G protein activation in Wnt signaling remain controversial. In this study, we demonstrate that FZDRs activate G proteins and trigger non-canonical Wnt signaling via the Dishevelled-binding protein, Daple. Daple contains a Gα-binding and activating (GBA) motif, which activates Gαi proteins and an adjacent domain that directly binds FZDRs, thereby linking Wnt stimulation to G protein activation. This triggers non-canonical Wnt responses, that is, suppresses the β-catenin/TCF/LEF pathway and tumorigenesis, but enhances PI3K-Akt and Rac1 signals and tumor cell invasiveness. In colorectal cancers, Daple is suppressed during adenoma-to-carcinoma transformation and expressed later in metastasized tumor cells. Thus, Daple activates Gαi and enhances non-canonical Wnt signaling by FZDRs, and its dysregulation can impact both tumor initiation and progression to metastasis.

Frizzleds and WNT/β-catenin signaling--The black box of ligand-receptor selectivity, complex stoichiometry and activation kinetics

The lipoglycoproteins of the mammalian WNT family induce β-catenin-dependent signaling through interaction with members of the Class Frizzled receptors and LDL receptor-related protein 5/6 (LRP5/6) albeit with unknown selectivity. The 10 mammalian Frizzleds (FZDs) are seven transmembrane (7TM) spanning receptors and have recently been classified as G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). This review summarizes the current knowledge about WNT/FZD selectivity and functional selectivity, the role of co-receptors for signal specification, the formation of receptor complexes as well as the kinetics and mechanisms of signal initiation with focus on WNT/β-catenin signaling. In order to exploit the true therapeutic potential of WNT/FZD signaling to treat human disease, it is clear that substantial progress in the understanding of receptor complex formation and signal specification has to precede a mechanism-based drug design targeting WNT receptors.

WNT/Frizzled signalling: receptor-ligand selectivity with focus on FZD-G protein signalling and its physiological relevance: IUPHAR Review 3

The wingless/int1 (WNT)/Frizzled (FZD) signalling pathway controls numerous cellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation, cell-fate decisions, migration and plays a crucial role during embryonic development. Nineteen mammalian WNTs can bind to 10 FZDs thereby activating different downstream pathways such as WNT/β-catenin, WNT/planar cell polarity and WNT/Ca(2+) . However, the mechanisms of signalling specification and the involvement of heterotrimeric G proteins are still unclear. Disturbances in the pathways can lead to various diseases ranging from cancer, inflammatory diseases to metabolic and neurological disorders. Due to the presence of seven-transmembrane segments, evidence for coupling between FZDs and G proteins and substantial structural differences in class A, B or C GPCRs, FZDs were grouped separately in the IUPHAR GPCR database as the class FZD within the superfamily of GPCRs. Recently, important progress has been made pointing to a direct activation of G proteins after WNT stimulation. WNT/FZD and G protein coupling remain to be fully explored, although the basic observation supporting the nature of FZDs as GPCRs is compelling. Because the involvement of different (i) WNTs; (ii) FZDs; and (iii) intracellular binding partners could selectively affect signalling specification, in this review we present the current understanding of receptor/ligand selectivity of FZDs and WNTs. We pinpoint what is known about signalling specification and the physiological relevance of these interactions with special emphasis on FZD-G protein interactions.

Resveratrol attenuates hypoxia/reoxygenation‑induced Ca2+ overload by inhibiting the Wnt5a/Frizzled‑2 pathway in rat H9c2 cells

Resveratrol is able to protect myocardial cells from ischemia/reperfusion‑induced injury. However, the mechanism has yet to be fully elucidated. In the present study, it is reported that resveratrol has a critical role in the control of Ca2+ overload, which is the primary underlying cause of ischemia/reperfusion injury. Hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) treatment decreased the cell viability and increased the apoptosis of H9c2 cells, whereas the caspase‑3 and intracellular Ca2+ levels were greatly elevated compared with the control group. Treatment of H9c2 cells with resveratrol (5, 15 and 30 µM) reduced caspase‑3 expression and cardiomyocyte apoptosis in a dose‑dependent manner, and the intracellular Ca2+ overload was also significantly decreased. Furthermore, Frizzled‑2 and Wnt5a belong to the non‑canonical Wnt/Ca2+ pathway, which have been demonstrated to be responsible for Ca2+ overload, and were thus detected in the present study. The results indicated that both the mRNA and protein expression levels of Frizzled‑2 and Wnt5a in H/R‑induced H9c2 cells were markedly increased compared with the levels found in normal cells, and treatment with resveratrol (5, 15 and 30 µM) significantly reduced the expression of Frizzled‑2 and Wnt5a compared with the H/R group. The results indicated that resveratrol protected myocardial cells from H/R injury by inhibiting the Ca2+ overload through suppression of the Wnt5a/Frizzled‑2 pathway.

Double suppression of the Gα protein activity by RGS proteins

Regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) proteins accelerate GTP hydrolysis on G protein α subunits, restricting their activity downstream from G protein-coupled receptors. Here we identify Drosophila Double hit (Dhit) as a dual RGS regulator of Gαo. In addition to the conventional GTPase-activating action, Dhit possesses the guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitor (GDI) activity, slowing the rate of GTP uptake by Gαo; both activities are mediated by the same RGS domain. These findings are recapitulated using homologous mammalian Gαo/i proteins and RGS19. Crystal structure and mutagenesis studies provide clues into the molecular mechanism for this unprecedented GDI activity. Physiologically, we confirm this activity in Drosophila asymmetric cell divisions and HEK293T cells. We show that the oncogenic Gαo mutant found in breast cancer escapes this GDI regulation. Our studies identify Dhit and its homologs as double-action regulators, inhibiting Gαo/i proteins both through suppression of their activation and acceleration of their inactivation through the single RGS domain.

Disheveled regulates precoupling of heterotrimeric G proteins to Frizzled 6

Frizzleds (FZDs) are classified as G-protein-coupling receptors, but how signals are initiated and specified through heterotrimeric G proteins is unknown. FZD6 regulates convergent extension movements, and its C-terminal Arg511Cys mutation causes nail dysplasia in humans. We investigated the functional relationship between FZD6, Disheveled (DVL), and heterotrimeric G proteins. Live cell imaging combined with fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) revealed that inactive human FZD6 precouples to Gαi1 and Gαq but not to GαoA,Gαs, and Gα12 proteins. G-protein coupling is measured as a 10-20% reduction in the mobile fraction of fluorescently tagged G proteins on chemical receptor surface cross-linking. The FZD6 Arg511Cys mutation is incapable of G-protein precoupling, even though it still binds DVL. Using both FRAP and Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) technology, we showed that the FZD6-Gαi1 and FZD-Gαq complexes dissociate on WNT-5A stimulation. Most important, G-protein precoupling of FZD6 and WNT-5A-induced signaling to extracellular signal-regulated kinase1/2 were impaired by DVL knockdown or overexpression, arguing for a strict dependence of FZD6-G-protein coupling on DVL levels and identifying DVL as a master regulator of FZD/G-protein signaling. In summary, we propose a mechanistic connection between DVL and G proteins integrating WNT, FZD, G-protein, and DVL function.

Anti-leprosy drug clofazimine inhibits growth of triple-negative breast cancer cells via inhibition of canonical Wnt signaling

Research on existing drugs often discovers novel mechanisms of their action and leads to the expansion of their therapeutic scope and subsequent remarketing. The Wnt signaling pathway is of the immediate therapeutic relevance, as it plays critical roles in cancer development and progression. However, drugs which disrupt this pathway are unavailable despite the high demand. Here we report an attempt to identify antagonists of the Wnt-FZD interaction among the library of the FDA-approved drugs. We performed an in silico screening which brought up several potential antagonists of the ligand-receptor interaction. 14 of these substances were tested using the TopFlash luciferase reporter assay and four of them identified as active and specific inhibitors of the Wnt3a-induced signaling. However, further analysis through GTP-binding and β-catenin stabilization assays showed that the compounds do not target the Wnt-FZD pair, but inhibit the signaling at downstream levels. We further describe the previously unknown inhibitory activity of an anti-leprosy drug clofazimine in the Wnt pathway and provide data demonstrating its efficiency in suppressing growth of Wnt-dependent triple-negative breast cancer cells. These data provide a basis for further investigations of the efficiency of clofazimine in treatment of Wnt-dependent cancers.

The evolutionary analysis reveals domain fusion of proteins with Frizzled-like CRD domain

Frizzleds (FZDs) are transmembrane receptors in the Wnt signaling pathway and they play pivotal roles in developments. The Frizzled-like extracellular Cysteine-rich domain (Fz-CRD) has been identified in FZDs and other proteins. The origin and evolution of these proteins with Fz-CRD is the main interest of this study. We found that the Fz-CRD exists in FZD, SFRP, RTK, MFRP, CPZ, CORIN, COL18A1 and other proteins. Our systematic analysis revealed that the Fz-CRD domain might have originated in protists and then fused with the Frizzled-like seven-transmembrane domain (7TM) to form the FZD receptors, which duplicated and diversified into about 11 members in Vertebrates. The SFRPs and RTKs with the Fz-CRD were found in sponge and expanded in Vertebrates. Other proteins with Fz-CRD may have emerged during Vertebrate evolution through domain fusion. Moreover, we found a glycosylation site and several conserved motifs in FZDs, which may be related to Wnt interaction. Based on these results, we proposed a model showing that the domain fusion and expansion of Fz-CRD genes occurred in Metazoa and Vertebrates. Our study may help to pave the way for further research on the conservation and diversification of Wnt signaling functions during evolution.

Kermit interacts with Gαo, Vang, and motor proteins in Drosophila planar cell polarity

In addition to the ubiquitous apical-basal polarity, epithelial cells are often polarized within the plane of the tissue – the phenomenon known as planar cell polarity (PCP). In Drosophila, manifestations of PCP are visible in the eye, wing, and cuticle. Several components of the PCP signaling have been characterized in flies and vertebrates, including the heterotrimeric Go protein. However, Go signaling partners in PCP remain largely unknown. Using a genetic screen we uncover Kermit, previously implicated in G protein and PCP signaling, as a novel binding partner of Go. Through pull-down and genetic interaction studies, we find that Kermit interacts with Go and another PCP component Vang, known to undergo intracellular relocalization during PCP establishment. We further demonstrate that the activity of Kermit in PCP differentially relies on the motor proteins: the microtubule-based dynein and kinesin motors and the actin-based myosin VI. Our results place Kermit as a potential transducer of Go, linking Vang with motor proteins for its delivery to dedicated cellular compartments during PCP establishment.

Axin expression enhances herpes simplex virus type 1 replication by inhibiting virus-mediated cell death in L929 cells

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) replicates in various cell types and induces early cell death, which limits viral replication in certain cell types. Axin is a scaffolding protein that regulates Wnt signalling and participates in various cellular events, including cellular proliferation and cell death. The effects of axin expression on HSV-1 infection were investigated based on our initial observation that Wnt3a treatment or axin knockdown reduced HSV-1 replication. L929 cells expressed the axin protein in a doxycycline-inducible manner (L-axin) and enhanced HSV-1 replication in comparison to control cells (L-EV). HSV-1 infection induced cell death as early as 6 h after infection through the necrotic pathway and required de novo protein synthesis in L929 cells. Subsequent analysis of viral protein expression suggested that axin expression led to suppression of HSV-1-induced premature cell death, resulting in increased late gene expression. In analysis of axin deletion mutants, the regulators of the G-protein signalling (RGS) domain were involved in the axin-mediated enhancement of viral replication and reduction in cell death. These results suggest that viral replication enhancement might be mediated by the axin RGS domain.

Wnt secretion and gradient formation

Concentration gradients formed by the lipid-modified morphogens of the Wnt family are known for their pivotal roles during embryogenesis and adult tissue homeostasis. Wnt morphogens are also implicated in a variety of human diseases, especially cancer. Therefore, the signaling cascades triggered by Wnts have received considerable attention during recent decades. However, how Wnts are secreted and how concentration gradients are formed remains poorly understood. The use of model organisms such as Drosophila melanogaster has provided important advances in this area. For instance, we have previously shown that the lipid raft-associated reggie/flotillin proteins influence Wnt secretion and spreading in Drosophila. Our work supports the notion that producing cells secrete Wnt molecules in at least two pools: a poorly diffusible one and a reggie/flotillin-dependent highly diffusible pool which allows morphogen spreading over long distances away from its source of production. Here we revise the current views of Wnt secretion and spreading, and propose two models for the role of the reggie/flotillin proteins in these processes: (i) reggies/flotillins regulate the basolateral endocytosis of the poorly diffusible, membrane-bound Wnt pool, which is then sorted and secreted to apical compartments for long-range diffusion, and (ii) lipid rafts organized by reggies/flotillins serve as “dating points” where extracellular Wnt transiently interacts with lipoprotein receptors to allow its capture and further spreading via lipoprotein particles. We further discuss these processes in the context of human breast cancer. A better understanding of these phenomena may be relevant for identification of novel drug targets and therapeutic strategies.

Pertussis toxin-sensitive heterotrimeric G(αi/o) proteins mediate WNT/β-catenin and WNT/ERK1/2 signaling in mouse primary microglia stimulated with purified WNT-3A

WNT-3A is a secreted lipoglycoprotein that engages Class Frizzled receptors and LDL receptor related protein 5/6 (LRP5/6) for cellular communication. Generally, WNT-3A mediates WNT/β-catenin signaling to regulate TCF/LEF-dependent gene expression. We have previously shown that β-catenin levels are elevated in proinflammatory microglia of Alzheimer's disease patients and that WNT-3A can evoke a strong proinflammatory response in primary microglia. In order to investigate the underlying mechanisms, we focus here on the pharmacological dissection of WNT-3A-induced signaling to β-catenin and to the extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 (ERK1/2) in mouse primary microglia. Both pathways are induced by WNT-3A with slightly different kinetics, suggesting that they might be pharmacologically separable. Inhibition of heterotrimeric Gαi/o proteins by pertussis toxin blocks WNT-3A-induced LRP6 phosphorylation, disheveled shift, β-catenin stabilization and phosphorylation of ERK1/2. On the other hand LRP6 blockade by Dickkopf 1 treatment abrogated the WNT/β-catenin pathway without affecting WNT/ERK1/2 signaling. In the opposite way, inhibition of βγ subunits, phospholipase C (PLC), intracellular calcium and MEK1/2, the upstream kinase of ERK1/2, blocked ERK1/2 phosphorylation but not β-catenin stabilization. In summary, the data suggest a central role of Gαi/o for both β-catenin-dependent and -independent pathways. WNT-3A-induced ERK1/2 phosphorylation is mediated by βγ subunits, PLC, intracellular calcium and MEK1/2. Furthermore, we show that cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2), a generic proinflammatory marker of microglia, is induced by WNT-3A through ERK1/2-dependent pathways arguing that β-catenin-independent signaling downstream of WNT-3A is of physiological importance for the proinflammatory regulation of microglia.

Targeting the Wnt/frizzled signaling pathway after myocardial infarction: a new tool in the therapeutic toolbox?

Wnt/frizzled signaling in the adult heart is quiescent under normal conditions; however it is reactivated after myocardial infarction (MI). Any intervention at the various levels of this pathway can modulate its signaling. Several studies have targeted Wnt/frizzled signaling after MI with the majority of them indicating that the inhibition of the pathway is beneficial since it improves infarct healing and prevents heart failure. This suggests that blocking the Wnt/frizzled signaling pathway could be a potential novel therapeutic target to prevent the adverse cardiac remodeling after MI.

Role of the Wnt-Frizzled system in cardiac pathophysiology: a rapidly developing, poorly understood area with enormous potential

Abstract  The Wnt-Frizzled (Fzd) G-protein-coupled receptor system, involving 19 distinct Wnt ligands and 10 Fzd receptors, plays key roles in the development and functioning of many organ systems. There is increasing evidence that Wnt-Fzd signalling is important in regulating cardiac function. Wnt-Fzd signalling primarily involves a canonical pathway, with dishevelled-1-dependent nuclear translocation of β-catenin that derepresses Wnt-sensitive gene transcription, but can also include non-canonical pathways via phospholipase-C/Ca(2+) mobilization and dishevelled-protein activation of small GTPases. Wnt-Fzd effects vary with specific ligand/receptor interactions and associated downstream pathways. This paper reviews the biochemistry and physiology of the Wnt-Fzd complex, and presents current knowledge of Wnt signalling in cardiac remodelling processes such as hypertrophy and fibrosis, as well as disease states such as myocardial infarction (MI), heart failure and arrhythmias. Wnt signalling is activated during hypertrophy; inhibiting Wnt signalling by activating glycogen synthase kinase attenuates the hypertrophic response. Wnt signalling has complex and time-dependent actions post-MI, so that either beneficial or harmful effects might result from Wnt-directed interventions. Stem cell biology, a promising area for therapeutic intervention, is highly regulated by Wnt signalling. The Wnt system regulates fibroblast function, and is prominently altered in arrhythmogenic ventricular cardiomyopathy, a familial disease involving excess deposition of fibroadipose tissue. Wnt signalling controls connexin43 expression, thereby contributing to the regulation of cardiac electrical stability and arrhythmia generation. Although much has been learned about Wnt-Fzd signalling in hypertrophy and infarction, its role is poorly understood for a broad range of other heart disorders. Much more needs to be learned for its contributions to be fully appreciated, and to permit more effective exploitation of its enormous potential in therapeutic development.

The complex world of WNT receptor signalling

30 years after the identification of WNTs, their signal transduction has become increasingly complex, with the discovery of more than 15 receptors and co-receptors in seven protein families. The recent discovery of three receptor classes for the R-spondin family of WNT agonists further adds to this complexity. What emerges is an intricate network of receptors that form higher-order ligand-receptor complexes routing downstream signalling. These are regulated both extracellularly by agonists such as R-spondin and intracellularly by post-translational modifications such as phosphorylation, proteolytic processing and endocytosis.

Structure-function dissection of the frizzled receptor in Drosophila melanogaster suggests different mechanisms of action in planar polarity and canonical Wnt signaling

Members of the Frizzled family of sevenpass transmembrane receptors signal via the canonical Wnt pathway and also via noncanonical pathways of which the best characterized is the planar polarity pathway. Activation of both canonical and planar polarity signaling requires interaction between Frizzled receptors and cytoplasmic proteins of the Dishevelled family; however, there has been some dispute regarding whether the Frizzled-Dishevelled interactions are the same in both cases. Studies looking at mutated forms of Dishevelled suggested that stable recruitment of Dishevelled to membranes by Frizzled was required only for planar polarity activity, implying that qualitatively different Frizzled-Dishevelled interactions underlie canonical signaling. Conversely, studies looking at the sequence requirements of Frizzled receptors in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster for canonical and planar polarity signaling have concluded that there is most likely a common mechanism of action. To understand better Frizzled receptor function, we have carried out a large-scale mutagenesis in Drosophila to isolate novel mutations in frizzled that affect planar polarity activity and have identified a group of missense mutations in cytosolic-facing regions of the Frizzled receptor that block Dishevelled recruitment. Interestingly, although some of these affect both planar polarity and canonical activity, as previously reported for similar lesions, we find a subset that affect only planar polarity activity. These results support the view that qualitatively different Frizzled-Dishevelled interactions underlie planar polarity and canonical Wnt signaling.

Regulator of G-protein signaling 3 isoform 1 (PDZ-RGS3) enhances canonical Wnt signaling and promotes epithelial mesenchymal transition

The Wnt β-catenin pathway controls numerous cellular processes including cell differentiation and cell-fate decisions. Wnt ligands engage Frizzled receptors and the low-density-lipoprotein-related protein 5/6 (LRP5/6) receptor complex leading to the recruitment of Dishevelled (Dvl) and Axin1 to the plasma membrane. Axin1 has a regulator of G-protein signaling (RGS) domain that binds adenomatous polyposis coli and Gα subunits, thereby providing a mechanism by which Gα subunits can affect β-catenin levels. Here we show that Wnt signaling enhances the expression of another RGS domain-containing protein, PDZ-RGS3. Reducing PDZ-RGS3 levels impaired Wnt3a-induced activation of the canonical pathway. PDZ-RGS3 bound GSK3β and decreased its catalytic activity toward β-catenin. PDZ-RGS3 overexpression enhanced Snail1 and led to morphological and biochemical changes reminiscent of epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT). These results indicate that PDZ-RGS3 can enhance signals generated by the Wnt canonical pathway and that plays a pivotal role in EMT.

Small GTPase Rab4b participates in the gene transcription of 20-hydroxyecdysone and insulin pathways to regulate glycogen level and metamorphosis

The insulin and 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) pathways coordinately regulate insect growth and metamorphosis. However, the molecular mechanism of the interaction of these two pathways in regulating insect development is not well understood. In the present study, we found that a small GTPase Rab4b from a lepidopteran insect Helicoverpa armigera participates in gene transcription in the two pathways. The results show that RNA interference of Rab4b in larvae results in a decrease in glycogen levels, small pupae, abnormal metamorphic transition, or larval death. The molecular mechanisms are demonstrated that knockdown of Rab4b in the larvae suppresses the transcription of glycogen synthase (GS), as well as the metamorphic-initiating factor (Br) and hormone receptor 3 (HR3), but increases the transcription of Forkhead box class O (FOXO). Further studies in the cell line confirm that Rab4b is necessary for gene transcription in the insulin and 20E pathways. Rab4b locates in the cytoplasm and takes part in regulation on FOXO cytoplasmic location by insulin induction, but travels toward the cell membrane upon 20E induction without affecting the FOXO location. The transcription of Rab4b could be upregulated by insulin injection or glucose feeding to the larvae, but not by 20E or juvenile hormone analogy methoprene. Our data suggest that Rab4b takes part in metamorphosis by regulating gene transcription and glycogen level in the insulin and 20E pathways.