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Nagargoje AA, Deshmukh TR, Shaikh MH, Khedkar VM, Shingate BB. Anticancer perspectives of monocarbonyl analogs of curcumin: A decade (2014-2024) review. Arch Pharm (Weinheim) 2024:e2400197. [PMID: 38895952 DOI: 10.1002/ardp.202400197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2024] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/26/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Monocarbonyl analogs of curcumin (MACs) represent structurally modified versions of curcumin. The existing literature indicates that MACs exhibit enhanced anticancer properties compared with curcumin. Numerous research articles in recent years have emphasized the significance of MACs as effective anticancer agents. This review focuses on the latest advances in the anticancer potential of MACs, from 2014 to 2024, including discussions on their mechanism of action, structure-activity relationship (SAR), and in silico molecular docking studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amol A Nagargoje
- Department of Chemistry, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar (Aurangabad), Maharashtra, India
- Department of Chemistry, Khopoli Municipal Council College, Khopoli, Maharashtra, India
| | - Tejshri R Deshmukh
- Department of Chemistry, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar (Aurangabad), Maharashtra, India
| | - Mubarak H Shaikh
- Department of Chemistry, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar (Aurangabad), Maharashtra, India
- Department of Chemistry, Radhabai Kale Mahila Mahavidyalaya, Ahmednagar, Maharashtra, India
| | - Vijay M Khedkar
- School of Pharmacy, Vishwakarma University, Pune, Maharashtra, India
| | - Bapurao B Shingate
- Department of Chemistry, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar (Aurangabad), Maharashtra, India
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2
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Natural Inhibitors of P-glycoprotein in Acute Myeloid Leukemia. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24044140. [PMID: 36835550 PMCID: PMC9962603 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24044140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) remains an insidious neoplasm due to the percentage of patients who develop resistance to both classic chemotherapy and emerging drugs. Multidrug resistance (MDR) is a complex process determined by multiple mechanisms, and it is often caused by the overexpression of efflux pumps, the most important of which is P-glycoprotein (P-gp). This mini-review aims to examine the advantages of using natural substances as P-gp inhibitors, focusing on four molecules: phytol, curcumin, lupeol, and heptacosane, and their mechanism of action in AML.
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3
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Synthesis, Characterization, and Antiproliferative Properties of New Bio-Inspired Xanthylium Derivatives. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28031102. [PMID: 36770768 PMCID: PMC9921969 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28031102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Xanthylium derivatives are curcumin analogs showing photochromic properties. Similarly, to anthocyanins, they follow the same multistate network of chemical species that are reversibly interconverted by external stimuli. In the present work, two new asymmetric monocarbonyl analogues of curcumin, 4-(4-hydroxy-3-metoxybenzylidene)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroxanthylium chloride (compound 3) and 4-(4-hydroxybenzylidene)-6-methoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroxanthylium chloride (compound 4) were synthesized, and their photochromic and biological properties were investigated. The UV-Vis spectroscopy and the direct and reverse pH-jumps studies confirmed the halochromic properties and the existence of different molecular species. A network of chemical reactions of these species was proposed. Furthermore, the antiproliferative properties of both compounds were evaluated using P19 murine embryocarcinoma cells and compared with each other. The results demonstrate that both new xanthylium derivatives modify the progression through the cell cycle of P19 cells, which translates into a significant antiproliferative effect. The effect of the methoxy group position is discussed and several checkpoint proteins are advanced as putative targets.
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4
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Doan NQH, Nguyen NTK, Duong VB, Nguyen HTT, Vong LB, Duong DN, Nguyen NTT, Nguyen TLT, Do TTH, Truong TN. Synthesis, Biological Evaluation, and Molecular Modeling Studies of 1-Aryl-1 H-pyrazole-Fused Curcumin Analogues as Anticancer Agents. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:33963-33984. [PMID: 36188331 PMCID: PMC9520563 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c02933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Addressing the growing burden of cancer and the shortcomings of chemotherapy in cancer treatment are the current research goals. Research to overcome the limitations of curcumin and to improve its anticancer activity via its heterocycle-fused monocarbonyl analogues (MACs) has immense potential. In this study, 32 asymmetric MACs fused with 1-aryl-1H-pyrazole (7a-10h) were synthesized and characterized to develop new curcumin analogues. Subsequently, via initial screening for cytotoxic activity, nine compounds exhibited potential growth inhibition against MDA-MB-231 (IC50 2.43-7.84 μM) and HepG2 (IC50 4.98-14.65 μM), in which seven compounds showing higher selectivities on two cancer cell lines than the noncancerous LLC-PK1 were selected for cell-free in vitro screening for effects on microtubule assembly activity. Among those, compounds 7d, 7h, and 10c showed effective inhibitions of microtubule assembly at 20.0 μM (40.76-52.03%), indicating that they could act as microtubule-destabilizing agents. From the screening results, three most potential compounds, 7d, 7h, and 10c, were selected for further evaluation of cellular effects on breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells. The apoptosis-inducing study indicated that these three compounds could cause morphological changes at 1.0 μM and could enhance caspase-3 activity (1.33-1.57 times) at 10.0 μM in MDA-MB-231 cells, confirming their apoptosis-inducing activities. Additionally, in cell cycle analysis, compounds 7d and 7h at 2.5 μM and 10c at 5.0 μM also arrested MDA-MB-231 cells in the G2/M phase. Finally, the results from in silico studies revealed that the predicted absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and the toxicity (ADMET) profile of the most potent MACs might have several advantages in addition to potential disadvantages, and compound 7h could bind into (ΔG -10.08 kcal·mol-1) and access wider space at the colchicine-binding site (CBS) than that of colchicine or nocodazole via molecular docking studies. In conclusion, our study serves as a basis for the design of promising synthetic compounds as anticancer agents in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nam Q. H. Doan
- Faculty
of Pharmacy, Van Lang University, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
| | - Ngan T. K. Nguyen
- Department
of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy at Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
| | - Vu B. Duong
- Department
of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy at Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
| | - Ha T. T. Nguyen
- School
of Biomedical Engineering, International University, Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
| | - Long B. Vong
- School
of Biomedical Engineering, International University, Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
| | - Diem N. Duong
- Immunology
Lab, Vaccines and Biologicals Production Department, Pasteur Institute in Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
| | - Nguyet-Thu T. Nguyen
- Immunology
Lab, Vaccines and Biologicals Production Department, Pasteur Institute in Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
| | - Tuyen L. T. Nguyen
- Saigon
Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies Center, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
| | - Tuoi T. H. Do
- Department
of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University
of Medicine and Pharmacy at Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
| | - Tuyen N. Truong
- Department
of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy at Ho Chi Minh City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
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5
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BP-M345, a New Diarylpentanoid with Promising Antimitotic Activity. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26237139. [PMID: 34885726 PMCID: PMC8659070 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26237139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2021] [Revised: 11/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Previously, we reported the in vitro growth inhibitory effect of diarylpentanoid BP-M345 on human cancer cells. Nevertheless, at that time, the cellular mechanism through which BP-M345 exerts its growth inhibitory effect remained to be explored. In the present work, we report its mechanism of action on cancer cells. The compound exhibits a potent tumor growth inhibitory activity with high selectivity index. Mechanistically, it induces perturbation of the spindles through microtubule instability. As a consequence, treated cells exhibit irreversible defects in chromosome congression during mitosis, which induce a prolonged spindle assembly checkpoint-dependent mitotic arrest, followed by massive apoptosis, as revealed by live cell imaging. Collectively, the results indicate that the diarylpentanoid BP-M345 exerts its antiproliferative activity by inhibiting mitosis through microtubule perturbation and causing cancer cell death, thereby highlighting its potential as antitumor agent.
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Pawelski D, Walewska A, Ksiezak S, Sredzinski D, Radziwon P, Moniuszko M, Gandusekar R, Eljaszewicz A, Lazny R, Brzezinski K, Plonska-Brzezinska ME. Monocarbonyl Analogs of Curcumin Based on the Pseudopelletierine Scaffold: Synthesis and Anti-Inflammatory Activity. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:11384. [PMID: 34768818 PMCID: PMC8583854 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222111384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Curcumin (CUR) is a natural compound that exhibits anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, and other biological properties. However, its application as an effective drug is problematic due to its poor oral bioavailability, solubility in water, and poor absorption from the gastrointestinal tract. The aim of this work is to synthesize monocarbonyl analogs of CUR based on the 9-methyl-9-azabicyclo[3.2.1]nonan-3-one (pseudopelletierine, granatanone) scaffold to improve its bioavailability. Granatane is a homologue of tropane, whose structure is present in numerous naturally occurring alkaloids, e.g., l-cocaine and l-scopolamine. In this study, ten new pseudopelletierine-derived monocarbonyl analogs of CUR were successfully synthesized and characterized by spectral methods and X-ray crystallography. Additionally, in vitro test of the cytotoxicity and anti-inflammatory properties of the synthesized compounds were performed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damian Pawelski
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy with the Division of Laboratory Medicine, Medical University of Bialystok, Mickiewicza 2A, 15-222 Bialystok, Poland;
| | - Alicja Walewska
- Department of Regenerative Medicine and Immune Regulation, Medical University of Bialystok, Waszyngtona 13, 15-269 Bialystok, Poland; (A.W.); (S.K.); (M.M.); (R.G.)
| | - Sylwia Ksiezak
- Department of Regenerative Medicine and Immune Regulation, Medical University of Bialystok, Waszyngtona 13, 15-269 Bialystok, Poland; (A.W.); (S.K.); (M.M.); (R.G.)
| | - Dariusz Sredzinski
- Regional Blood Donation and Blood Treatment Center in Bialystok, M. Sklodowskiej-Curie 23, 15-950 Bialystok, Poland; (D.S.); (P.R.)
| | - Piotr Radziwon
- Regional Blood Donation and Blood Treatment Center in Bialystok, M. Sklodowskiej-Curie 23, 15-950 Bialystok, Poland; (D.S.); (P.R.)
- Department of Hematology, Medical University of Bialystok, M. Sklodowskiej-Curie 24A, 15-276 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Marcin Moniuszko
- Department of Regenerative Medicine and Immune Regulation, Medical University of Bialystok, Waszyngtona 13, 15-269 Bialystok, Poland; (A.W.); (S.K.); (M.M.); (R.G.)
- Department of Allergology and Internal Medicine, Medical University of Bialystok, M. Sklodowskiej-Curie 24A, 15-276 Bialystok, Poland
| | - Ramesh Gandusekar
- Department of Regenerative Medicine and Immune Regulation, Medical University of Bialystok, Waszyngtona 13, 15-269 Bialystok, Poland; (A.W.); (S.K.); (M.M.); (R.G.)
| | - Andrzej Eljaszewicz
- Department of Regenerative Medicine and Immune Regulation, Medical University of Bialystok, Waszyngtona 13, 15-269 Bialystok, Poland; (A.W.); (S.K.); (M.M.); (R.G.)
| | - Ryszard Lazny
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Bialystok, Ciolkowskiego 1K, 15-245 Bialystok, Poland;
| | - Krzysztof Brzezinski
- Department of Structural Biology of Prokaryotic Organisms, Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Noskowskiego 12/14, 61-074 Poznan, Poland
| | - Marta E. Plonska-Brzezinska
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy with the Division of Laboratory Medicine, Medical University of Bialystok, Mickiewicza 2A, 15-222 Bialystok, Poland;
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7
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Das T, Anand U, Pandey SK, Ashby CR, Assaraf YG, Chen ZS, Dey A. Therapeutic strategies to overcome taxane resistance in cancer. Drug Resist Updat 2021; 55:100754. [PMID: 33691261 DOI: 10.1016/j.drup.2021.100754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2020] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
One of the primary causes of attenuated or loss of efficacy of cancer chemotherapy is the emergence of multidrug resistance (MDR). Numerous studies have been published regarding potential approaches to reverse resistance to taxanes, including paclitaxel (PTX) and docetaxel, which represent one of the most important classes of anticancer drugs. Since 1984, following the FDA approval of paclitaxel for the treatment of advanced ovarian carcinoma, taxanes have been extensively used as drugs that target tumor microtubules. Taxanes, have been shown to affect an array of oncogenic signaling pathways and have potent cytotoxic efficacy. However, the clinical success of these drugs has been restricted by the emergence of cancer cell resistance, primarily caused by the overexpression of MDR efflux transporters or by microtubule alterations. In vitro and in vivo studies indicate that the mechanisms underlying the resistance to PTX and docetaxel are primarily due to alterations in α-tubulin and β-tubulin. Moreover, resistance to PTX and docetaxel results from: 1) alterations in microtubule-protein interactions, including microtubule-associated protein 4, stathmin, centriole, cilia, spindle-associated protein, and kinesins; 2) alterations in the expression and activity of multidrug efflux transporters of the ABC superfamily including P-glycoprotein (P-gp/ABCB1); 3) overexpression of anti-apoptotic proteins or inhibition of apoptotic proteins and tumor-suppressor proteins, as well as 4) modulation of signal transduction pathways associated with the activity of several cytokines, chemokines and transcription factors. In this review, we discuss the abovementioned molecular mechanisms and their role in mediating cancer chemoresistance to PTX and docetaxel. We provide a detailed analysis of both in vitro and in vivo experimental data and describe the application of these findings to therapeutic practice. The current review also discusses the efficacy of different pharmacological modulations to achieve reversal of PTX resistance. The therapeutic roles of several novel compounds, as well as herbal formulations, are also discussed. Among them, many structural derivatives had efficacy against the MDR phenotype by either suppressing MDR or increasing the cytotoxic efficacy compared to the parental drugs, or both. Natural products functioning as MDR chemosensitizers offer novel treatment strategies in patients with chemoresistant cancers by attenuating MDR and increasing chemotherapy efficacy. We broadly discuss the roles of inhibitors of P-gp and other efflux pumps, in the reversal of PTX and docetaxel resistance in cancer cells and the significance of using a nanomedicine delivery system in this context. Thus, a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms mediating the reversal of drug resistance, combined with drug efficacy and the application of target-based inhibition or specific drug delivery, could signal a new era in modern medicine that would limit the pathological consequences of MDR in cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuyelee Das
- Department of Life Sciences, Presidency University, 86/1 College Street, Kolkata, 700073, West Bengal, India
| | - Uttpal Anand
- Department of Life Sciences and the National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, 84105, Israel
| | - Swaroop Kumar Pandey
- Department of Life Sciences and the National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, 84105, Israel
| | - Charles R Ashby
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, St. John's University, Queens, NY, 11439, USA
| | - Yehuda G Assaraf
- The Fred Wyszkowski Cancer Research Laboratory, Department of Biology, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, 3200003, Israel
| | - Zhe-Sheng Chen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, St. John's University, Queens, NY, 11439, USA.
| | - Abhijit Dey
- Department of Life Sciences, Presidency University, 86/1 College Street, Kolkata, 700073, West Bengal, India.
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8
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Wang N, Zhang Y, Liu H, Wang A, Ren T, Gou J, Zhang Y, Yin T, He H, Tang X. Toxicity Reduction and Efficacy Promotion of Doxorubicin in the Treatment of Breast Tumors Assisted by Enhanced Oral Absorption of Curcumin-Loaded Lipid–Polyester Mixed Nanoparticles. Mol Pharm 2020; 17:4533-4547. [PMID: 33201717 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.0c00718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Na Wang
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103 Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China
| | | | | | - Andong Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China
| | - Tianyang Ren
- Department of Pharmacy, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110001, China
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9
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Keyvani-Ghamsari S, Khorsandi K, Gul A. Curcumin effect on cancer cells' multidrug resistance: An update. Phytother Res 2020; 34:2534-2556. [PMID: 32307747 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.6703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2019] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Chemotherapy is one of the main methods for cancer treatment. However, despite many advances in the design of anticancer drugs, their efficiency is limited due to their high toxicity and resistance of cells to chemotherapeutic drugs. In order to improve the cancer therapy, it is essential to use the compounds that can overcome drug resistance and increase treatment efficiency. Researchers have studied the effects of natural compounds for the controlling various drug resistance mechanisms. Curcumin is a natural phenolic compound which shows potent anticancer activities in different tumors, alone or as an adjuvant with other antitumor drugs to prevent or inhibit the survival and cancer progression by various mechanisms. The role of curcumin in overcoming drug resistance was followed by reviewing different applications of curcumin in cancer therapy. Afterward, the clinical impacts of curcumin, role of curcumin in decreasing drug resistance in different cancer cells and its mechanisms were discussed. It has been demonstrated that curcumin regulates signaling pathways in cancer cells, reduces the expression of proteins related to drug resistance, and increases the performance of antitumor drugs at various levels. Curcumin reverses multidrug resistance mechanisms and increases sensitivity of resistance cells to chemotherapy. This review mainly focuses on different mechanisms of drug resistance and curcumin as a nontoxic natural substance to eliminate the effects of drug resistance through modulation and controlling cell resistance pathways and eventually suggests curcumin as a potent chemosensitizer in cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Khatereh Khorsandi
- Department of Photodynamic, Medical Laser Research Center, Yara Institute, ACECR, Tehran, Iran
| | - Asma Gul
- Department of Biological Sciences, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan
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10
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Xu T, Guo P, He Y, Pi C, Wang Y, Feng X, Hou Y, Jiang Q, Zhao L, Wei Y. Application of curcumin and its derivatives in tumor multidrug resistance. Phytother Res 2020; 34:2438-2458. [PMID: 32255545 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.6694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Malignant tumor endangers seriously the health of all mankind. Multidrug resistance (MDR) is one of the main causes of clinical tumor chemotherapy failure. Curcumin (CUR) has not only antitumor activity but also reversing tumor MDR effect. CUR reverses tumor MDR via regulating related signal pathways or corresponding expressed proteins or gene. When combined with chemotherapeutic agents, CUR can be a chemotherapeutic sensitive agent to enhance chemotherapy efficacy and weaken tumor MDR. On the other hand, to improve the MDR reversal effect of CUR, its derivatives have been extensively studied. Therefore, this article mainly focuses on reviewing the application of CUR and its derivatives in MDR and its mechanism of reversing MDR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Xu
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Pu Guo
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Yingmeng He
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Chao Pi
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuanyuan Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Xianhu Feng
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Yi Hou
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Qingsheng Jiang
- School of International Education, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Ling Zhao
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Yumeng Wei
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
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11
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Jiang D, Lei T, Wang Z, Shen C, Cao D, Hou T. ADMET evaluation in drug discovery. 20. Prediction of breast cancer resistance protein inhibition through machine learning. J Cheminform 2020; 12:16. [PMID: 33430990 PMCID: PMC7059329 DOI: 10.1186/s13321-020-00421-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP/ABCG2), an ATP-binding cassette (ABC) efflux transporter, plays a critical role in multi-drug resistance (MDR) to anti-cancer drugs and drug–drug interactions. The prediction of BCRP inhibition can facilitate evaluating potential drug resistance and drug–drug interactions in early stage of drug discovery. Here we reported a structurally diverse dataset consisting of 1098 BCRP inhibitors and 1701 non-inhibitors. Analysis of various physicochemical properties illustrates that BCRP inhibitors are more hydrophobic and aromatic than non-inhibitors. We then developed a series of quantitative structure–activity relationship (QSAR) models to discriminate between BCRP inhibitors and non-inhibitors. The optimal feature subset was determined by a wrapper feature selection method named rfSA (simulated annealing algorithm coupled with random forest), and the classification models were established by using seven machine learning approaches based on the optimal feature subset, including a deep learning method, two ensemble learning methods, and four classical machine learning methods. The statistical results demonstrated that three methods, including support vector machine (SVM), deep neural networks (DNN) and extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost), outperformed the others, and the SVM classifier yielded the best predictions (MCC = 0.812 and AUC = 0.958 for the test set). Then, a perturbation-based model-agnostic method was used to interpret our models and analyze the representative features for different models. The application domain analysis demonstrated the prediction reliability of our models. Moreover, the important structural fragments related to BCRP inhibition were identified by the information gain (IG) method along with the frequency analysis. In conclusion, we believe that the classification models developed in this study can be regarded as simple and accurate tools to distinguish BCRP inhibitors from non-inhibitors in drug design and discovery pipelines.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Dejun Jiang
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Tailong Lei
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhe Wang
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Chao Shen
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Dongsheng Cao
- Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, 410004, Hunan, People's Republic of China.
| | - Tingjun Hou
- Hangzhou Institute of Innovative Medicine, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China.
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12
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Dallavalle S, Dobričić V, Lazzarato L, Gazzano E, Machuqueiro M, Pajeva I, Tsakovska I, Zidar N, Fruttero R. Improvement of conventional anti-cancer drugs as new tools against multidrug resistant tumors. Drug Resist Updat 2020; 50:100682. [PMID: 32087558 DOI: 10.1016/j.drup.2020.100682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Revised: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Multidrug resistance (MDR) is the dominant cause of the failure of cancer chemotherapy. The design of antitumor drugs that are able to evade MDR is rapidly evolving, showing that this area of biomedical research attracts great interest in the scientific community. The current review explores promising recent approaches that have been developed with the aim of circumventing or overcoming MDR. Encouraging results have been obtained in the investigation of the MDR-modulating properties of various classes of natural compounds and their analogues. Inhibition of P-gp or downregulation of its expression have proven to be the main mechanisms by which MDR can be surmounted. The use of hybrid molecules that are able to simultaneously interact with two or more cancer cell targets is currently being explored as a means to circumvent drug resistance. This strategy is based on the design of hybrid compounds that are obtained either by merging the structural features of separate drugs, or by conjugating two drugs or pharmacophores via cleavable/non-cleavable linkers. The approach is highly promising due to the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic advantages that can be achieved over the independent administration of the two individual components. However, it should be stressed that the task of obtaining successful multivalent drugs is a very challenging one. The conjugation of anticancer agents with nitric oxide (NO) donors has recently been developed, creating a particular class of hybrid that can combat tumor drug resistance. Appropriate NO donors have been shown to reverse drug resistance via nitration of ABC transporters and by interfering with a number of metabolic enzymes and signaling pathways. In fact, hybrid compounds that are produced by covalently attaching NO-donors and antitumor drugs have been shown to elicit a synergistic cytotoxic effect in a variety of drug resistant cancer cell lines. Another strategy to circumvent MDR is based on nanocarrier-mediated transport and the controlled release of chemotherapeutic drugs and P-gp inhibitors. Their pharmacokinetics are governed by the nanoparticle or polymer carrier and make use of the enhanced permeation and retention (EPR) effect, which can increase selective delivery to cancer cells. These systems are usually internalized by cancer cells via endocytosis and accumulate in endosomes and lysosomes, thus preventing rapid efflux. Other modalities to combat MDR are described in this review, including the pharmaco-modulation of acridine, which is a well-known scaffold in the development of bioactive compounds, the use of natural compounds as means to reverse MDR, and the conjugation of anticancer drugs with carriers that target specific tumor-cell components. Finally, the outstanding potential of in silico structure-based methods as a means to evaluate the ability of antitumor drugs to interact with drug transporters is also highlighted in this review. Structure-based design methods, which utilize 3D structural data of proteins and their complexes with ligands, are the most effective of the in silico methods available, as they provide a prediction regarding the interaction between transport proteins and their substrates and inhibitors. The recently resolved X-ray structure of human P-gp can help predict the interaction sites of designed compounds, providing insight into their binding mode and directing possible rational modifications to prevent them from becoming P-gp drug substrates. In summary, although major efforts were invested in the search for new tools to combat drug resistant tumors, they all require further implementation and methodological development. Further investigation and progress in the abovementioned strategies will provide significant advances in the rational combat against cancer MDR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Dallavalle
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 2, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Vladimir Dobričić
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Pharmacy, Vojvode Stepe 450, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Loretta Lazzarato
- Department of Drug Science and Technology, Università degli Studi di Torino, Via Pietro Giuria 9, 10125 Turin, Italy
| | - Elena Gazzano
- Department of Oncology, Università degli Studi di Torino, Via Santena 5/bis, 10126 Turin, Italy
| | - Miguel Machuqueiro
- BioISI-Biosystems & Integrative Sciences Institute, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, C8 Building, Campo Grande, 1749-016, Lisbon, Portugal; Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Campo Grande, 1749-016, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ilza Pajeva
- QSAR and Molecular Modelling Department, Institute of Biophysics and Biomedical Engineering, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev Str., Block 105, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Ivanka Tsakovska
- QSAR and Molecular Modelling Department, Institute of Biophysics and Biomedical Engineering, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev Str., Block 105, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Nace Zidar
- University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy, Aškerčeva cesta 7, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Roberta Fruttero
- Department of Drug Science and Technology, Università degli Studi di Torino, Via Pietro Giuria 9, 10125 Turin, Italy.
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Wolosewicz K, Podgorska K, Rutkowska E, Lazny R. Synthesis of Dicarbonyl Curcumin Analogues Containing the Tropane Scaffold. European J Org Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201900416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Karol Wolosewicz
- Institute of Chemistry; University of Bialystok; Ciołkowskiego 1K 15-245 Bialystok Poland
| | - Katarzyna Podgorska
- Institute of Chemistry; University of Bialystok; Ciołkowskiego 1K 15-245 Bialystok Poland
| | - Ewelina Rutkowska
- Institute of Chemistry; University of Bialystok; Ciołkowskiego 1K 15-245 Bialystok Poland
| | - Ryszard Lazny
- Institute of Chemistry; University of Bialystok; Ciołkowskiego 1K 15-245 Bialystok Poland
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14
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Rodrigues FC, Anil Kumar NV, Thakur G. Developments in the anticancer activity of structurally modified curcumin: An up-to-date review. Eur J Med Chem 2019; 177:76-104. [PMID: 31129455 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.04.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Revised: 02/14/2019] [Accepted: 04/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Curcumin is a pharmacologically active polyphenol derived from the popular spice element-Turmeric. The therapeutic activity of curcumin has been extensively investigated over the last few decades and reports suggest the role of curcumin in a large number of biological activities, particularly its prominent anticancer activity. Curcumin, being a pleiotropic molecule, is a regulator of multiple molecular targets which play crucial roles in various cell signaling pathways. It is known to suppress transformation, inhibit proliferation as well as induce apoptosis. However, despite all these benefits, the efficacy of curcumin remains limited due to its poor bioavailability, poor absorption within the systemic circulation and rapid elimination from the body. To overcome these limiting factors, researchers all around the world are working towards designing a synthetic and superior curcuminoid by making suitable structural modifications to the parent skeleton. These curcuminoids, mainly analogues and derivatives, will not only improve the physicochemical properties but also enhance the efficacy simultaneously. The present review will provide a comprehensive account of the analogues and derivatives of curcumin that have been reported since 2014 which have indicated a better anticancer activity than curcumin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiona C Rodrigues
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, 576 104, India
| | - N V Anil Kumar
- Department of Chemistry, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, 576 104, India
| | - Goutam Thakur
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, 576 104, India.
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15
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Diao L, Shen A, Yang Y, Tao J, Hu Y. CD44-targeted hyaluronic acid–curcumin reverses chemotherapeutics resistance by inhibiting P-gp and anti-apoptotic pathways. RSC Adv 2019; 9:40873-40882. [PMID: 35540044 PMCID: PMC9076387 DOI: 10.1039/c9ra08202f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Chemotherapeutic drug resistance poses a great challenge in cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Diao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
- Wenzhou Medical University
- Wenzhou
- China
- Zhejiang Pharmaceutical College
| | - Ao Shen
- The University of Queensland
- Brisbane 4072
- Australia
| | - Yunxu Yang
- Zhejiang Pharmaceutical College
- Ningbo
- China
| | - Jin Tao
- Zhejiang Pharmaceutical College
- Ningbo
- China
| | - Ying Hu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
- Wenzhou Medical University
- Wenzhou
- China
- Zhejiang Pharmaceutical College
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16
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Zhao H, Huang Y, Shi J, Dai Y, Wu L, Zhou H. ABCC10 Plays a Significant Role in the Transport of Gefitinib and Contributes to Acquired Resistance to Gefitinib in NSCLC. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:1312. [PMID: 30515095 PMCID: PMC6256088 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.01312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Gefitinib, an epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitor (EGFR-TKI), is used clinically as first-line therapy in patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) with EGFR activating mutations, but the inevitable development of acquired resistance limits its efficacy. In up to 30–40% of NSCLC cases, the mechanism underlying acquired resistance remains unknown. ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters are a family of membrane proteins that can significantly influence the bioavailability of numerous drugs, and have confirmed to play an essential role in multidrug resistance (MDR) in cancer chemotherapy. However, their role in acquired resistance to gefitnib in NSCLC has not been well studied. Here, through RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) technology we assessed the differentially expressed ABC transporters in gefitinib-sensitive (PC9 and H292) and gefitinib-resistant (PC9/GR and H292/GR) NSCLC cells, with ABCC10 identified as a transporter of interest. Both ABCC10 mRNA and protein were significantly increased in acquired gefitinib-resistant NSCLC cells, independent of EGFR mutation status. In vitro transport assay showed that ABCC10 could actively efflux gefitinib, with an efflux ratio (ER) of 7.8. Further results from in vitro cell line models and in vivo xenograft models showed that overexpression of ABCC10 led to a reduction in gefitinib sensitivity through decreasing the intracellular gefitinib accumulation. Our data suggest that ABCC10 has an important role in acquired resistance to gefitinib in NSCLC, which can serve as a novel predictive marker and a potential therapeutic target in gefitinib treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongbo Zhao
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Female Reproductive Endocrine Related Diseases, Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yutang Huang
- Institute of Life Sciences, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jingjing Shi
- Institute of Life Sciences, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yi Dai
- Institute of Life Sciences, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Lanxiang Wu
- Institute of Life Sciences, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Honghao Zhou
- Institute of Life Sciences, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Pharmacogenetics Research Institute, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Changsha, China
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The Effects of Synthetically Modified Natural Compounds on ABC Transporters. Pharmaceutics 2018; 10:pharmaceutics10030127. [PMID: 30096910 PMCID: PMC6161255 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics10030127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Revised: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Multidrug resistance (MDR) is a major hurdle which must be overcome to effectively treat cancer. ATP-binding cassette transporters (ABC transporters) play pivotal roles in drug absorption and disposition, and overexpression of ABC transporters has been shown to attenuate cellular/tissue drug accumulation and thus increase MDR across a variety of cancers. Overcoming MDR is one desired approach to improving the survival rate of patients. To date, a number of modulators have been identified which block the function and/or decrease the expression of ABC transporters, thereby restoring the efficacy of a range of anticancer drugs. However, clinical MDR reversal agents have thus far proven ineffective and/or toxic. The need for new, effective, well-tolerated and nontoxic compounds has led to the development of natural compounds and their derivatives to ameliorate MDR. This review evaluates whether synthetically modifying natural compounds is a viable strategy to generate potent, nontoxic, ABC transporter inhibitors which may potentially reverse MDR.
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18
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Zhao HD, Xie HJ, Li J, Ren CP, Chen YX. Research Progress on Reversing Multidrug Resistance in Tumors by Using Chinese Medicine. Chin J Integr Med 2018; 24:474-480. [PMID: 29860581 DOI: 10.1007/s11655-018-2910-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Multidrug resistance (MDR) is a major cause of cancer chemotherapy failure, and it is important to develop suitable reversal agents to overcome MDR. A majority of chemical reversal agents have acceptable reversal effects. However, the toxicity and adverse reactions associated with these agents restricts their clinical use. Chinese medicines (CMs) have lower toxicities and adverse reactions and are associated with multiple components, multiple targets and reduced toxicity. CMs have several advantages and could reverse MDR, decrease drug dosage, enhance patient compliance and increase efficacy. This review summarizes the current progress of CM reversal agents..
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan-Dong Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Nanobiological Technology of Chinese Ministry of Health, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, China.,School of Pharmacy, Central South University, Changsha, 410013, China
| | - Hong-Juan Xie
- Department of Pharmacy, Tongren Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University, School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200336, China
| | - Jian Li
- Key Laboratory of Nanobiological Technology of Chinese Ministry of Health, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, 410008, China
| | - Cai-Ping Ren
- Cancer Research Institute, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cancer Medicine, Key Laboratory for Carcinogenesis of Chinese Ministry of Health, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, China
| | - Yu-Xiang Chen
- School of Pharmacy, Central South University, Changsha, 410013, China.
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19
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Zhou QM, Sun Y, Lu YY, Zhang H, Chen QL, Su SB. Curcumin reduces mitomycin C resistance in breast cancer stem cells by regulating Bcl-2 family-mediated apoptosis. Cancer Cell Int 2017; 17:84. [PMID: 28959140 PMCID: PMC5615796 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-017-0453-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2017] [Accepted: 09/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Curcumin, a natural compound derived from the turmeric rhizome Curcuma longa Linn, has anticancer and chemoresistance reduction biological activities. We evaluated the efficacy of curcumin in sensitizing chemotherapy drugs through regulation of Bcl-2-mediated apoptosis in breast cancer stem-like cells (BCSCs). Methods Cell survival was measured using MTT assay. Apoptosis-related proteins were observed using western blot analysis. Apoptosis was detected with flow cytometric analysis and by Hoechst 33258 staining. The mitochondrial membrane potential was observed with flow cytometric analysis. Results The ability of BCSCs to propagate decreased gradually along the passages and was completely lost at the fifth passage [0.1 μmol/L mitomycin C (MMC) with 5 μmol/L curcumin in MCF-7 and 0.5 μmol/L MMC with 5 μmol/L curcumin in MDA-MB-231 cells]. Curcumin combined with MMC treatment significantly decreased the levels of antiapoptotic Bcl-2 and Bcl-w expression, increased the levels of proapoptotic Bax, Bak, Bad, Bik, and Bim expression, and activated caspase-3 and caspase-9 in MCF-7 BCSCs. In the presence of Bcl-2 siRNA, the apoptosis rate increased by 15% in cells treated with curcumin and MMC. The mitochondrial membrane potential decreased by approximately 20% in MCF-7 BCSCs undergoing the combination treatment of curcumin and MMC. The combination-induced decrease in Bcl-2 was regulated by the presence of the Wnt-specific inhibitor PFK115-584 and PI3k inhibitor LY294002. Conclusions Our study indicates that curcumin might represent a novel therapeutic agent for treating breast cancer chemoresistance induced by MMC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian-Mei Zhou
- Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine Complexity System, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203 China
| | - Yang Sun
- Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine Complexity System, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203 China
| | - Yi-Yu Lu
- Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine Complexity System, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203 China
| | - Hui Zhang
- Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine Complexity System, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203 China
| | - Qi-Long Chen
- Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine Complexity System, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203 China
| | - Shi-Bing Su
- Research Center for Traditional Chinese Medicine Complexity System, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203 China
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20
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Murakami M, Ohnuma S, Fukuda M, Chufan EE, Kudoh K, Kanehara K, Sugisawa N, Ishida M, Naitoh T, Shibata H, Iwabuchi Y, Ambudkar SV, Unno M. Synthetic Analogs of Curcumin Modulate the Function of Multidrug Resistance-Linked ATP-Binding Cassette Transporter ABCG2. Drug Metab Dispos 2017; 45:1166-1177. [PMID: 28904007 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.117.076000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Multidrug resistance (MDR) caused by the overexpression of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters in cancer cells is a major obstacle in cancer chemotherapy. Previous studies have shown that curcumin, a natural product and a dietary constituent of turmeric, inhibits the function of MDR-related ABC transporters, including ABCB1, ABCC1, and especially ABCG2. However, the limited bioavailability of curcumin prevents its use for modulation of the function of these transporters in the clinical setting. In this study, we investigated the effects of 24 synthetic curcumin analogs with increased bioavailability on the transport function of ABCG2. The screening of the 24 synthetic analogs by means of flow cytometry revealed that four of the curcumin analogs (GO-Y030, GO-Y078, GO-Y168, and GO-Y172) significantly inhibited the efflux of the ABCG2 substrates, mitoxantrone and pheophorbide A, from ABCG2-overexpressing K562/breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) cells. Biochemical analyses showed that GO-Y030, GO-Y078, and GO-Y172 stimulated the ATPase activity of ABCG2 at nanomolar concentrations and inhibited the photolabeling of ABCG2 with iodoarylazidoprazosin, suggesting that these analogs interact with the substrate-binding sites of ABCG2. In addition, when used in cytotoxicity assays, GO-Y030 and GO-Y078 were found to improve the sensitivity of the anticancer drug, SN-38, in K562/BCRP cells. Taken together, these results suggest that nontoxic synthetic curcumin analogs with increased bioavailability, especially GO-Y030 and GO-Y078, inhibit the function of ABCG2 by directly interacting at the substrate-binding site. These synthetic curcumin analogs could therefore be developed as potent modulators to overcome ABCG2-mediated MDR in cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megumi Murakami
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine (M.M., S.O., K.Ku., K.Ka., N.S., M.I., T.N., M.U.), and Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry, Department of Organic Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (M.F., Y.I.), Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan; Laboratory of Cell Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (E.E.C., S.V.A.); and Department of Clinical Oncology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan (H.S.)
| | - Shinobu Ohnuma
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine (M.M., S.O., K.Ku., K.Ka., N.S., M.I., T.N., M.U.), and Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry, Department of Organic Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (M.F., Y.I.), Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan; Laboratory of Cell Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (E.E.C., S.V.A.); and Department of Clinical Oncology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan (H.S.)
| | - Michihiro Fukuda
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine (M.M., S.O., K.Ku., K.Ka., N.S., M.I., T.N., M.U.), and Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry, Department of Organic Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (M.F., Y.I.), Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan; Laboratory of Cell Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (E.E.C., S.V.A.); and Department of Clinical Oncology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan (H.S.)
| | - Eduardo E Chufan
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine (M.M., S.O., K.Ku., K.Ka., N.S., M.I., T.N., M.U.), and Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry, Department of Organic Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (M.F., Y.I.), Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan; Laboratory of Cell Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (E.E.C., S.V.A.); and Department of Clinical Oncology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan (H.S.)
| | - Katsuyoshi Kudoh
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine (M.M., S.O., K.Ku., K.Ka., N.S., M.I., T.N., M.U.), and Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry, Department of Organic Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (M.F., Y.I.), Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan; Laboratory of Cell Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (E.E.C., S.V.A.); and Department of Clinical Oncology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan (H.S.)
| | - Keigo Kanehara
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine (M.M., S.O., K.Ku., K.Ka., N.S., M.I., T.N., M.U.), and Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry, Department of Organic Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (M.F., Y.I.), Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan; Laboratory of Cell Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (E.E.C., S.V.A.); and Department of Clinical Oncology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan (H.S.)
| | - Norihiko Sugisawa
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine (M.M., S.O., K.Ku., K.Ka., N.S., M.I., T.N., M.U.), and Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry, Department of Organic Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (M.F., Y.I.), Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan; Laboratory of Cell Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (E.E.C., S.V.A.); and Department of Clinical Oncology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan (H.S.)
| | - Masaharu Ishida
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine (M.M., S.O., K.Ku., K.Ka., N.S., M.I., T.N., M.U.), and Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry, Department of Organic Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (M.F., Y.I.), Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan; Laboratory of Cell Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (E.E.C., S.V.A.); and Department of Clinical Oncology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan (H.S.)
| | - Takeshi Naitoh
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine (M.M., S.O., K.Ku., K.Ka., N.S., M.I., T.N., M.U.), and Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry, Department of Organic Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (M.F., Y.I.), Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan; Laboratory of Cell Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (E.E.C., S.V.A.); and Department of Clinical Oncology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan (H.S.)
| | - Hiroyuki Shibata
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine (M.M., S.O., K.Ku., K.Ka., N.S., M.I., T.N., M.U.), and Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry, Department of Organic Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (M.F., Y.I.), Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan; Laboratory of Cell Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (E.E.C., S.V.A.); and Department of Clinical Oncology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan (H.S.)
| | - Yoshiharu Iwabuchi
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine (M.M., S.O., K.Ku., K.Ka., N.S., M.I., T.N., M.U.), and Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry, Department of Organic Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (M.F., Y.I.), Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan; Laboratory of Cell Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (E.E.C., S.V.A.); and Department of Clinical Oncology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan (H.S.)
| | - Suresh V Ambudkar
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine (M.M., S.O., K.Ku., K.Ka., N.S., M.I., T.N., M.U.), and Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry, Department of Organic Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (M.F., Y.I.), Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan; Laboratory of Cell Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (E.E.C., S.V.A.); and Department of Clinical Oncology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan (H.S.)
| | - Michiaki Unno
- Department of Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine (M.M., S.O., K.Ku., K.Ka., N.S., M.I., T.N., M.U.), and Laboratory of Synthetic Chemistry, Department of Organic Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (M.F., Y.I.), Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan; Laboratory of Cell Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland (E.E.C., S.V.A.); and Department of Clinical Oncology, Akita University Graduate School of Medicine, Akita, Japan (H.S.)
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Revalde JL, Li Y, Wijeratne TS, Bugde P, Hawkins BC, Rosengren RJ, Paxton JW. Curcumin and its cyclohexanone analogue inhibited human Equilibrative nucleoside transporter 1 (ENT1) in pancreatic cancer cells. Eur J Pharmacol 2017; 803:167-173. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2017.03.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2016] [Revised: 03/26/2017] [Accepted: 03/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Cui T, Zhang S, Sun H. Co-delivery of doxorubicin and pH-sensitive curcumin prodrug by transferrin-targeted nanoparticles for breast cancer treatment. Oncol Rep 2017; 37:1253-1260. [PMID: 28075466 DOI: 10.3892/or.2017.5345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The natural product curcumin and the chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin have been used in the treatment of many cancers, including breast cancer. However, fast clearance and unspecific distribution in the body after intravenous injection are still challenges to be overcome by an ideal nano-sized drug delivery system in cancer treatment. In this study we design transferrin (Tf) decorated nanoparticles (NPs) to co-deliver CUR and DOX for breast cancer treatment. A pH-sensitive prodrug, transferrin-poly(ethylene glycol)-curcumin (Tf-PEG-CUR), was synthesized and used for the self‑assembling of NPs (Tf-PEG-CUR NPs). DOX is incorporated into the Tf-PEG-CUR NPs to obtain Tf-PEG-CUR/DOX NPs. In vitro cytotoxicity studies and in vivo antitumor activity were carried out using MCF-7 cells and mice bearing MCF-7 cells, respectively. Tf-PEG-CUR/DOX NPs has a particle size of 89 nm and a zeta potential of -15.6 mV. This system displayed remarkably higher efficiency than other systems both in vitro and in vivo. DOX and CUR were successfully loaded into nanocarriers. The in vitro cell viability assays revealed the combination of Tf-PEG-CUR and DOX NPs exhibited higher cytotoxicity in vitro in MCF-7 cells compared with Tf-PEG-CUR NPs alone. Using the breast cancer xenograft mouse model, we demonstrate that this co-encapsulation approach resulted in an efficient tumor-targeted drug delivery, decreased cytotoxic effects and exhibited stronger antitumor effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tongxing Cui
- Department of Galactophore Surgery, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Qingdao, Shandong 266011, P.R. China
| | - Sihao Zhang
- Department of Galactophore Surgery, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Qingdao, Shandong 266011, P.R. China
| | - Hong Sun
- Second Department of Oncology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Qingdao, Shandong 266011, P.R. China
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23
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Lopes-Rodrigues V, Sousa E, Vasconcelos MH. Curcumin as a Modulator of P-Glycoprotein in Cancer: Challenges and Perspectives. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2016; 9:E71. [PMID: 27834897 PMCID: PMC5198046 DOI: 10.3390/ph9040071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2016] [Revised: 11/02/2016] [Accepted: 11/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Multidrug resistance (MDR) presents a serious challenge to the efficiency of cancer treatment, and may be associated with the overexpression of drug efflux pumps. P-glycoprotein (P-gp) is a drug efflux pump often found overexpressed in cases of acquired MDR. Nevertheless, there are no P-gp inhibitors being used in the current clinical practice, due to toxicity problems, drug interactions, or pharmacokinetic issues. Therefore, it is important to identify novel inhibitors of P-gp activity or expression. Curcumin is a secondary metabolite isolated from the turmeric of Curcuma longa L. which has been associated with several biological activities, particularly P-gp modulatory activity (by inhibiting both P-gp function and expression). However, curcumin shows extensive metabolism and instability, which has justified the recent and intensive search for analogs of curcumin that maintain the P-gp modulatory activity but have enhanced stability. This review summarizes and compares the effects of curcumin and several curcumin analogs on P-glycoprotein function and expression, emphasizing the potential of these molecules for the possible development of safe and effective inhibitors of P-gp to overcome MDR in human cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Lopes-Rodrigues
- i3S, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal.
- Cancer Drug Resistance Group, IPATIMUP-Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of the University of Porto, IPATIMUP, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
- ICBAS-UP-Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar, University of Porto, ICBAS-UP, 4099-003 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Emília Sousa
- Laboratory of Organic and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
- CIIMAR/CIMAR-Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, 4050-123 Porto, Portugal.
| | - M Helena Vasconcelos
- i3S, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal.
- Cancer Drug Resistance Group, IPATIMUP-Institute of Molecular Pathology and Immunology of the University of Porto, IPATIMUP, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Biological Sciences, FFUP-Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
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24
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Gu Y, Li J, Li Y, Song L, Li D, Peng L, Wan Y, Hua S. Nanomicelles loaded with doxorubicin and curcumin for alleviating multidrug resistance in lung cancer. Int J Nanomedicine 2016; 11:5757-5770. [PMID: 27843316 PMCID: PMC5098753 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s118568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE A new type of polymeric micelle (PM) was assembled using a polyethylene glycol (PEG)-linked (PEGylated) amphiphilic copolymer and d-tocopheryl PEG1000 succinate (TPGS1000). The micelles were used to deliver doxorubicin (DOX) and curcumin (CUR) for alleviating multidrug resistance (MDR) in lung cancer cells while enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of DOX. METHODS Micelles loaded with DOX and CUR were assembled using a film-forming technique. Micelles were used to treat A549/Adr cells to find out whether micelles had the ability to reverse the MDR of A549/Adr cells. Some investigations were conducted using tumor-bearing mice to assess whether these micelles had enhanced antitumor efficacy as compared to DOX alone or the combination of DOX and CUR. RESULTS Some micelles (DOX + CUR)-PMs had a small average size of about 17 nm and showed definite ability to deliver both DOX and CUR into DOX-resistant A549/Adr cells. The PMs had high cytotoxicity toward A549/Adr cells when the applied equivalent DOX dose was 1 µg/mL or higher. The cellular uptake of (DOX + CUR)-PMs into A549/Adr cells was found to be associated with an energy-dependent, caveolae-mediated, and clathrin-independent mechanism. (DOX + CUR)-PMs helped to prolong the circulation of DOX or CUR as compared to the individual administration of DOX or CUR, and they exhibited high inhibiting efficiency against the growth of tumors and were able to reduce the side effects of DOX. CONCLUSION TPGS1000 and CUR could synergistically reverse DOX-resistance of A549/Adr cells. In vivo examinations confirmed that the micelles had the capability to increase the plasma concentration of DOX or CUR, as well as to prolong their respective blood circulation. These micelles were able to significantly inhibit tumor growth in Lewis lung carcinoma tumor-bearing mice while reducing the side effects of DOX. The micelles showed potential in the treatment of lung cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Gu
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin
| | - Jing Li
- Hubei Province Key Laboratory on Cardiovascular, Cerebrovascular, and Metabolic Disorders, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning
| | - Yang Li
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin
| | - Lei Song
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin
| | - Dan Li
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin
| | - Liping Peng
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin
| | - Ying Wan
- College of Life Sciences and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, People’s Republic of China
| | - Shucheng Hua
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin
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25
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Kang X, Zhao C, Yan L, Qi R, Jing X, Wang Z. Sensitizing nanoparticle based platinum(IV) drugs by curcumin for better chemotherapy. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2016; 145:812-819. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2016.05.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2015] [Revised: 05/11/2016] [Accepted: 05/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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26
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Callies O, Sánchez-Cañete MP, Gamarro F, Jiménez IA, Castanys S, Bazzocchi IL. Optimization by Molecular Fine Tuning of Dihydro-β-agarofuran Sesquiterpenoids as Reversers of P-Glycoprotein-Mediated Multidrug Resistance. J Med Chem 2016; 59:1880-90. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.5b01429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Callies
- Instituto Universitario
de Bio-Orgánica “Antonio González”, Departamento
de Química Orgánica, and Instituto Canario de Investigación
del Cáncer, Universidad de La Laguna, Avenida Astrofísico Francisco
Sánchez 2, 38206 La Laguna, Tenerife Spain
| | - María P. Sánchez-Cañete
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina López-Neyra,
Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IPBLN-CSIC), Parque Tecnológico de Ciencias de la Salud, Avenida del Conocimiento s/n, 18016 Armilla, Granada Spain
| | - Francisco Gamarro
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina López-Neyra,
Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IPBLN-CSIC), Parque Tecnológico de Ciencias de la Salud, Avenida del Conocimiento s/n, 18016 Armilla, Granada Spain
| | - Ignacio A. Jiménez
- Instituto Universitario
de Bio-Orgánica “Antonio González”, Departamento
de Química Orgánica, and Instituto Canario de Investigación
del Cáncer, Universidad de La Laguna, Avenida Astrofísico Francisco
Sánchez 2, 38206 La Laguna, Tenerife Spain
| | - Santiago Castanys
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina López-Neyra,
Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IPBLN-CSIC), Parque Tecnológico de Ciencias de la Salud, Avenida del Conocimiento s/n, 18016 Armilla, Granada Spain
| | - Isabel L. Bazzocchi
- Instituto Universitario
de Bio-Orgánica “Antonio González”, Departamento
de Química Orgánica, and Instituto Canario de Investigación
del Cáncer, Universidad de La Laguna, Avenida Astrofísico Francisco
Sánchez 2, 38206 La Laguna, Tenerife Spain
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27
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Arnason T, Harkness T. Development, Maintenance, and Reversal of Multiple Drug Resistance: At the Crossroads of TFPI1, ABC Transporters, and HIF1. Cancers (Basel) 2015; 7:2063-82. [PMID: 26501324 PMCID: PMC4695877 DOI: 10.3390/cancers7040877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2015] [Accepted: 10/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Early detection and improved therapies for many cancers are enhancing survival rates. Although many cytotoxic therapies are approved for aggressive or metastatic cancer; response rates are low and acquisition of de novo resistance is virtually universal. For decades; chemotherapeutic treatments for cancer have included anthracyclines such as Doxorubicin (DOX); and its use in aggressive tumors appears to remain a viable option; but drug resistance arises against DOX; as for all other classes of compounds. Our recent work suggests the anticoagulant protein Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor 1α (TFPI1α) plays a role in driving the development of multiple drug resistance (MDR); but not maintenance; of the MDR state. Other factors; such as the ABC transporter drug efflux pumps MDR-1/P-gp (ABCB1) and BCRP (ABCG2); are required for MDR maintenance; as well as development. The patient population struggling with therapeutic resistance specifically requires novel treatment options to resensitize these tumor cells to therapy. In this review we discuss the development, maintenance, and reversal of MDR as three distinct phases of cancer biology. Possible means to exploit these stages to reverse MDR will be explored. Early molecular detection of MDR cancers before clinical failure has the potential to offer new approaches to fighting MDR cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terra Arnason
- Department of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 0W8, Canada
- Correspondence: ; Tel.:+1-306-844-1119; Fax: +1-306-844-1512
| | - Troy Harkness
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 0W8, Canada;
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