The kinase inhibitor BX795 suppresses the inflammatory response via multiple kinases

Gene therapies and gene product-based drug candidates for normalizing and preserving tissue functions in animal models of ocular hypertension and glaucoma

More than 76 million people worldwide are afflicted with the neurodegenerative eye diseases described and grouped together as glaucoma. A common feature amongst the many forms of glaucoma is chronically elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) within the anterior chamber of the eye that physically damages the retina, optic nerve and parts of the brain connected with visual perception. The mediators of the contusing raised IOP responsible for such damage and loss of vision include locally released inflammatory agents, tissue remodeling enzymes and infiltrating immune cells which damage the retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axons and eventually kill a significant number of the RGCs. Additional culprits include genetic defects of the patient that involve aberrations in receptors, enzymes and/or endogenous ligands and possible over- or under-production of the latter. Other genetic abnormalities may include issues with signal transduction machinery within key cells of critical tissues in the front (e.g. trabecular meshwork [TM] and Schlemm's canal [SC]) and back of the eye (e.g. retinal ganglion cells and their axons). Genome-wide associated studies (GWAS) coupled with next generation sequencing have provided powerful linkage of certain gene defects and polymorphic variants to the onset and progression of diseases of the tissues involved in fluid dynamics in the TM and SC, and many retinal elements (lamina cribosa, optic nerve head) at the back of the eye which cause ocular hypertension (OHT) and glaucomatous optic neuropathy (GON), respectively. Despite the availability of some drugs, fluid drainage microshunts and full surgical techniques to lower and control intraocular pressure, the major modifiable biomarker of open-angle and other forms of glaucoma, their side-effect profiles, less than optimum effectiveness and short duration of action present opportunities to clinically manage the glaucomas with next generation of treatments with high therapeutic indices, including gene therapies. Thus, identification, characterization and deployment of genetic data coupled with traditional drug discovery and novel gene replacement, gene editing and genetic engineering technologies may provide some solutions to the aforementioned problems. These aspects will be discussed in this article.

Noncoding RNAs: Versatile regulators of endothelial dysfunction

Noncoding RNAs have recently emerged as versatile regulators of endothelial dysfunction in atherosclerosis, a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by the formation of plaques within the arterial walls. Through their ability to modulate gene expression, noncoding RNAs, including microRNAs, long noncoding RNAs, and circular RNAs, play crucial roles in various cellular processes involved in endothelial dysfunction (ECD), such as inflammation, pyroptosis, migration, proliferation, apoptosis, oxidative stress, and angiogenesis. This review provides an overview of the current understanding of the regulatory roles of noncoding RNAs in endothelial dysfunction during atherosclerosis. It highlights the specific noncoding RNAs that have been implicated in the pathogenesis of ECD, their target genes, and the mechanisms by which they contribute to ECD. Furthermore, we have reviewed the current therapeutics in atherosclerosis and explore their interaction with noncoding RNAs. Understanding the intricate regulatory network of noncoding RNAs in ECD may open up new opportunities for the development of novel therapeutic strategies to combat ECD.

Master kinase PDK1 in tumorigenesis

3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase 1 (PDK1) is considered as master kinase regulating AGC kinase family members such as AKT, SGK, PLK, S6K and RSK. Although autophosphorylation regulates PDK1 activity, accumulating evidence suggests that PDK1 is manipulated by many other mechanisms, including S6K-mediated phosphorylation, and the E3 ligase SPOP-mediated ubiquitination and degradation. Dysregulation of these upstream regulators or downstream signals involves in cancer development, as PDK1 regulating cell growth, metastasis, invasion, apoptosis and survival time. Meanwhile, overexpression of PDK1 is also exposed in a plethora of cancers, whereas inhibition of PDK1 reduces cell size and inhibits tumor growth and progression. More importantly, PDK1 also modulates the tumor microenvironments and markedly influences tumor immunotherapies. In summary, we comprehensively summarize the downstream signals, upstream regulators, mouse models, inhibitors, tumor microenvironment and clinical treatments for PDK1, and highlight PDK1 as a potential cancer therapeutic target.

Small RNA sequencing of exosomal microRNAs reveals differential expression of microRNAs in preeclampsia

Preeclampsia (PE) is one of the most common hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. It is a dangerous condition with a high mortality rate in mothers and fetuses and is associated with a lack of early diagnosis and effective treatment. While the etiology of the disease is complex and obscure, it is now clear that the placenta is central to disease progression. Exosomal microRNAs (miRNAs) are possible mediators that regulate placenta-related physiological and pathological processes. Placental mesenchymal stem cells have considerable potential to help us understand the pathogenesis and treatment of pregnancy-related diseases. Here, we investigate the exosomal miRNA profiles of human placenta-derived mesenchymal stem cells between healthy pregnant women and those with PE. We performed small RNA sequencing to obtain miRNA profiles, and conducted enrichment analysis of the miRNA target genes to identify differentially expressed miRNAs associated with PE. Overall, we detected 1795 miRNAs; among them, 206 were differentially expressed in women with PE, including 35 upregulated and 171 downregulated miRNAs, when compared with healthy pregnant women. Moreover, we identified possible functions and pathways associated with PE, including angiogenesis, cell proliferation, migration and invasion, and the coagulation-fibrinolysis balance. Eventually, we proposed hsa-miR-675-5p, hsa-miR-3614-5p, and hsa-miR-615-5p as potential regulators of the pathogenesis of PE, and constructed a miRNA-target gene network. Our study identifies possible candidate biomarkers for the diagnosis of PE, and introduces a new direction for further understanding the pathogenesis of PE.

piRNA-823 is a novel potential therapeutic target in aortic dissection

Aortic dissection (AD) presents a medical challenge for clinicians. Here, to determine the role of a novel small non-coding piRNA-823 (piR-823) in AD, murine and human aorta from patients with AD were used. A high expression levels of piR-823 were found in patients with AD. Using performed loss- and gain-of-function assays in vitro and in vivo, we explore the regulatory effect of piR-823 on vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and AD. piR-823 obviously facilitates the proliferation, migration, and phenotypic transformation of VSMCs with or without nicotine treatment. piR-823 directly binds and suppresses histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) expression, and regulates the acetylation of histone 3 (H3) via H3K9ac and H3K27ac, eventually, VSMC functions and AD. To consolidate our findings, AD murine model was performed, and we observed that piR-823 antagomir strongly inhibited the pathogenesis of AD through regulating vascular remodeling. Thus, our study finds a potential target for the prevention and treatment strategy for nicotine-induced AD.

Eriocalyxin B ameliorated Crohn's disease-like colitis by restricting M1 macrophage polarization through JAK2/STAT1 signalling

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

M1 polarization of macrophages in the intestine is an important maintenance factor of the inflammatory response in Crohn's disease (CD). Eriocalyxin B (EriB) is a natural medicine that antagonizes inflammation. Our study aimed to determine the effects of EriB on CD-like colitis in mice, as well as the possible mechanism.

METHODS

2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS) mice and Il-10^-/- mice were used as CD animal models, and the therapeutic effect of EriB on CD-like colitis in mice was addressed by the disease activity index (DAI) score, weight change, histological analysis and flow cytometry assay. To assess the direct role of EriB in regulating macrophage polarization, bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) were induced to M1 or M2 polarization separately. Molecular docking simulations and blocking experiments were performed to explore the potential mechanisms by which EriB regulates the macrophage polarization.

RESULTS

EriB treatment reduced body weight loss, DAI score and histological score, demonstrating the improvement of colitis symptoms in mice. In vivo and in vitro experiments both showed that EriB decreased the M1 polarization of macrophages, and suppressed the release of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α and IL-6) in mouse colons and BMDMs. The activation of Janus kinase 2/signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (JAK2/STAT1) signals could be inhibited by EriB, which may be related to the regulation of EriB on M1 polarization.

CONCLUSIONS

EriB inhibits the M1 polarization of macrophages by attenuating the JAK2/STAT1 pathway, which partially explains the potential mechanism by which EriB ameliorates colitis in mice, and provides a new regimen for the clinical treatment of CD.

Elevated Intraocular Pressure and Glaucomatous Optic Neuropathy: Genes to Disease Mechanisms, Therapeutic Drugs, and Gene Therapies

This review article focuses on the pathogenesis of and genetic defects linked with chronic ocular hypertension (cOHT) and glaucoma. The latter ocular disease constitutes a group of ocular degenerative diseases whose hallmark features are damage to the optic nerve, apoptotic demise of retinal ganglion cells, disturbances within the brain regions involved in visual perception and considerable visual impairment that can lead to blindness. Even though a number of pharmaceuticals, surgical and device-based treatments already exist addressing cOHT associated with the most prevalent of the glaucoma types, primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG), they can be improved upon in terms of superior efficacy with reduced side-effects and with longer duration of activity. The linkage of disease pathology to certain genes via genome-wide associated studies are illuminating new approaches to finding novel treatment options for the aforementioned ocular disorders. Gene replacement, gene editing via CRISPR-Cas9, and the use of optogenetic technologies may replace traditional drug-based therapies and/or they may augment existing therapeutics for the treatment of cOHT and POAG in the future.

Pazopanib alleviates neuroinflammation and protects dopaminergic neurons in LPS-stimulated mouse model by inhibiting MEK4-JNK-AP-1 pathway

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by the loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons and the accumulation of Lewy bodies (LB) in the substantia nigra (SN). Evidence shows that microglia-mediated neuroinflammation plays a key role in PD pathogenesis. Using TNF-α as an indicator for microglial activation, we established a cellular model to screen compounds that could inhibit neuroinflammation. From 2471 compounds in a small molecular compound library composed of FDA-approved drugs, we found 77 candidates with a significant anti-inflammatory effect. In this study, we further characterized pazopanib, a pan-VEGF receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor (that was approved by the FDA for the treatment of advanced renal cell carcinoma and advanced soft tissue sarcoma). We showed that pretreatment with pazopanib (1, 5, 10 μM) dose-dependently suppressed LPS-induced BV2 cell activation evidenced by inhibiting the transcription of proinflammatory factors iNOS, COX2, Il-1β, and Il-6 through the MEK4-JNK-AP-1 pathway. The conditioned medium from LPS-treated microglia caused mouse DA neuronal MES23.5 cell damage, which was greatly attenuated by pretreatment of the microglia with pazopanib. We established an LPS-stimulated mouse model by stereotactic injection of LPS into mouse substantia nigra. Administration of pazopanib (10 mg·kg-1·d-1, i.p., for 10 days) exerted significant anti-inflammatory and neuronal protective effects, and improved motor abilities impaired by LPS in the mice. Together, we discover a promising candidate compound for anti-neuroinflammation and provide a potential repositioning of pazopanib in the treatment of PD.

Protective effect and mechanism of ginsenoside Rg2 on atherosclerosis

Background

Ginsenoside Rg2 (Rg2) has a variety of pharmacological activities and provides benefits during inflammation, cancer, and other diseases. However, there are no reports about the relationship between Rg2 and atherosclerosis.

Methods

We used 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) to detect the cell viability of Rg2 in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). The expression of inflammatory factors in HUVECs and the expression of phenotypic transformation-related marker in VSMCs were detected at mRNA levels. Western blot method was used to detect the expression of inflammation pathways and the expression of phenotypic transformation at the protein levels. The rat carotid balloon injury model was performed to explore the effect of Rg2 on inflammation and phenotypic transformation in vivo.

Results

Rg2 decreased the expression of inflammatory factors induced by lipopolysaccharide in HUVECs-without affecting cell viability. These events depend on the blocking regulation of NF-κB and p-ERK signaling pathway. In VSMCs, Rg2 can inhibit the proliferation, migration, and phenotypic transformation of VSMCs induced by platelet derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB)-which may contribute to its anti-atherosclerotic role. In rats with carotid balloon injury, Rg2 can reduce intimal proliferation after injury, regulate the inflammatory pathway to reduce inflammatory response, and also suppress the phenotypic transformation of VSMCs.

Conclusion

These results suggest that Rg2 can exert its anti-atherosclerotic effect at the cellular level and animal level, which provides a more sufficient basis for ginseng as a functional dietary regulator.

BX795, a kinase inhibitor, inhibit duck plague virus infection via targeting US3 kinase

Duck plague virus (DPV) is a typical DNA virus of waterfowl, it causes huge economic losses to the duck industry due to the higher mortality and lower egg production. The disease is one of the frequent epidemics and outbreaks on duck farms because present vaccines could not provide complete immunity and there are no specific antiviral drugs available. Therefore, the development of antiviral drugs is urgently needed. In this study, we evaluated the antiviral activity of BX795, a specific kinase inhibitor of 3-phosphoinositide-dependent kinase 1 (PDK1), protein kinase B (AKT) and Tank binding kinase 1 (TBK1), against DPV in different duck cells. Our study demonstrated that BX795 reveals prominent antiviral activity in a dose-dependent manner in different types of duck cells. Time-addition and antiviral duration analysis uncovered that BX795 inhibits viral infection therapeutically and its antiviral activity lasts longer than 96 h. Further studies have shown that BX795 prevents cell-to-cell spread of the DPV rather than affects other stage of viral life cycle. Mechanistically, BX795 can inhibit DPV US3 kinase activity, reduce the phosphorylation of US3 substrates, and prevent the interaction between US3 and UL47. Taking together, our study demonstrated BX795, which disrupts the viral kinase activity, is a candidate antiviral agent for DPV.

The small molecule inhibitor BX-795 uncouples IL-2 production from inhibition of Th2 inflammation and induces CD4+ T cells resembling iTreg

Background

Treg cells have been shown to be an important part of immune-homeostasis and IL-2 which is produced upon T cell receptor (TCR)-dependent activation of T lymphocytes has been demonstrated to critically participate in Treg development.

Objective

To evaluate small molecule inhibitors (SMI) for the identification of novel IL-2/Treg enhancing compounds.

Materials and methods

We used TCR-dependent and allergen-specific cytokine secretion of human and mouse T cells, next generation messenger ribonucleic acid sequencing (RNA-Seq) and two different models of allergic airway inflammation to examine lead SMI-compounds.

Results

We show here that the reported 3-phosphoinositide dependent kinase-1 (PDK1) SMI BX-795 increased IL-2 in culture supernatants of Jurkat E6-1 T cells, human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (hPBMC) and allergen-specific mouse T cells upon TCR-dependent and allergen-specific stimulation while concomitantly inhibiting Th2 cytokine secretion. RNA-Seq revealed that the presence of BX-795 during allergen-specific activation of T cells induces a bona fide Treg cell type highly similar to iTreg but lacking Foxp3 expression. When applied in mugwort pollen and house dust mite extract-based models of airway inflammation, BX-795 significantly inhibited Th2 inflammation including expression of Th2 signature transcription factors and cytokines and influx into the lungs of type 2-associated inflammatory cells such as eosinophils.

Conclusions

BX-795 potently uncouples IL-2 production from Th2 inflammation and induces Th-IL-2 cells, which highly resemble induced (i)Tregs. Thus, BX-795 may be a useful new compound for the treatment of allergic diseases.

miR-564: A potential regulator of vascular smooth muscle cells and therapeutic target for aortic dissection

BACKGROUND

Aortic dissection (AD) is a lethal cardiac disorder and one of the most concerning cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Increasing evidence indicates that human aortic vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of AD, especially related to phenotypic transformation. And notablely, the development of AD is also accompanied by inflammation.

METHODS

By using quantitative real-time PCR and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), we detected the expression levels of miR-564 in vitro and in vivo. The effects of miR-564 proliferation and migration were investigated in VSMCs. The downstream targets of miR-564 were found by bioinformatics analyse, and verified in the regulation on VSMCs. An AD murine model was constructed and clinical evaluation was performed to explore the critical roles of miR-564 in vivo. At the same time, the level of inflammation was detected using quantitative real-time PCR and immunofluorescence.

RESULTS

Overexpression of miR-564 inhibited cell proliferation and migration, as well as phenotype switch, with or without platelet-derived growth factor BB (PDGF-BB) treatment, whereas downregulation of miR-564 led to opposite results. Mechanistically, miR-564 directly interacted with the target genes proto-oncogene (SKI) and neurogranin (NRGN) to regulate the biological functions of VSMCs. In particular, animal experiments demonstrated that miR-564 can alleviate the progression of AD mainly through mediating phenotypic swithing and inflammation which was consistent with clinical evaluation.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study identified miR-564 as a significant molecule that attenuates AD progression by inhibiting inflammation and VSMCs proliferation, migration and phenotypic transformation, suggesting that it may be a potential therapeutic target for AD.

The lncRNA Punisher Regulates Apoptosis and Mitochondrial Homeostasis of Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells via Targeting miR-664a-5p and OPA1

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are important regulators of various cellular functions. Recent studies have shown that a novel lncRNA termed Punisher is highly expressed in cardiovascular progenitors and has potential role in cardiovascular diseases. However, its role, especially in molecular mechanism, is unclear. In our present study, we observed that Punisher was obviously downregulated in atherosclerotic plaques. Further research proved that it can suppress the apoptosis of VSMCs potentially contributing to the progression of atherosclerosis. Intriguingly, Punisher revealed to regulate mitochondria fission as well as mitochondrial functions induced by hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) in VSMCs. Mechanistically, Punisher was further proved to serve as a ceRNA which directly binds to miR-664a-5p and consequently regulates its target OPA1, and finally contributes to the biological function of VSMCs. Particularly, Punisher overexpression distinctly suppressed neointima formation and VSMC apoptosis in vivo. Encouragingly, these results were in accordance with findings obtained with the clinical evaluation of patients with atherosclerosis. Our data provides the significant relationship among OPA1, mitochondrial homeostasis, VSMC apoptosis, and atherosclerosis. And lncRNA Punisher and miR-664a-5p could serve as the novel and potential targets in the diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular diseases.

Identification of 1H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine derivatives as novel and potent TBK1 inhibitors: design, synthesis, biological evaluation, and molecular docking study

TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1), a noncanonical member of the inhibitor-kappaB kinases (IKKs) family, plays a vital role in coordinating the signalling pathways of innate immunity, involving in the process of neuroinflammation, autophagy, and oncogenesis. In current study, based on rational drug design strategy, we discovered a series of 1H-pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridine derivatives as potent TBK1 inhibitors and dissected the structure–activity relationships (SARs). Through the several rounds of optimisation, compound 15y stood out as a potent inhibitor on TBK1 with an IC₅₀ value of 0.2 nM and also displayed good selectivity. The mRNA detection of TBK1 downstream genes showed that compound 15y effectively inhibited TBK1 downstream IFN signalling in stimulated THP-1 and RAW264.7 cells. Meanwhile, compound 15y exhibited a micromolar antiproliferation effect on A172, U87MG, A375, A2058, and Panc0504 cell lines. Together, current results provided a promising TBK1 inhibitor 15y as lead compound for immune- and cancer-related drug discovery.

Anti-Inflammatory Activities of an Anti-Histamine Drug, Loratadine, by Suppressing TAK1 in AP-1 Pathway

Loratadine is an anti-histamine routinely used for treating allergies. However, recent findings have shown that Loratadine may also have anti-inflammatory functions, while their exact mechanisms have not yet been fully uncovered. In this paper, we investigated whether Loratadine can be utilized as an anti-inflammatory drug through a series of in vitro and in vivo experiments using a murine macrophage cell line and an acute gastritis mouse model. Loratadine was found to dramatically reduce the expression of pro-inflammatory genes, including MMP1, MMP3, and MMP9, and inhibit AP-1 transcriptional activation, as demonstrated by the luciferase assay. Therefore, we decided to further explore its role in the AP-1 signaling pathway. The expression of c-Jun and c-Fos, AP-1 subunits, was repressed by Loratadine and, correspondingly, the expression of p-JNK, p-MKK7, and p-TAK1 was also inhibited. In addition, Loratadine was able to reduce gastric bleeding in acute gastritis-induced mice; Western blotting using the stomach samples showed reduced p-c-Fos protein levels. Loratadine was shown to effectively suppress inflammation by specifically targeting TAK1 and suppressing consequent AP-1 signaling pathway activation and inflammatory cytokine production.

Comprehensive profile of circRNAs in formaldehyde induced heart development

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a novel type of long non-coding RNAs that can regulate gene expression in heart development and heart disease. However, the expression pattern of circRNAs in congenital heart disease (CHD) induced by formaldehyde exposure is still unknown. We detected circRNAs expression profiles in heart tissue taken from six neonatal rat pups with formaldehyde exposure group and normal group using RNA-sequencing. Results revealed that a total of 54 circRNAs were dysregulated in the formaldehyde exposure group compared to the normal group. Among them, 31 were upregulated and 23 were downregulated (fold change = 2.0, p < 0.0 5). The qRT-qPCR results showed that expressions of 12:628708|632694, 18:77477060|77520779, 5:167486001|167526275 were significantly upregulated, while that of 7:41167312|4116775 and 20:50659751|5068786 were notably downregulated; the expression pattern was consistent with the RNA sequencing data. Bioinformatics analysis shows that the pathogenesis of formaldehyde exposure-induced CHD may involve Hippo-YAP pathway、Notch signaling pathway and other pathways. A key miRNA (rno-miR-665) was identified by constructing a circRNA-miRNA-mRNA co-expression network. In summary, the study illustrated that circRNAs differentially expressed in fetal heart tissues during formaldehyde exposure has potential biological functions and may be a biomarker or therapeutic target for CHD.

Targeting IKKε in Androgen-Independent Prostate Cancer Causes Phenotypic Senescence and Genomic Instability

Advanced prostate cancer will often progress to a lethal, castration-resistant state. We previously demonstrated that IKKε expression correlated with the aggressiveness of prostate cancer disease. Here, we address the potential of IKKε as a therapeutic target in prostate cancer. We examined cell fate decisions (proliferation, cell death, and senescence) in IKKε-depleted PC-3 cells, which exhibited delayed cell proliferation and a senescent phenotype, but did not undergo cell death. Using IKKε/TBK1 inhibitors, BX795 and Amlexanox, we measured their effects on cell fate decisions in androgen-sensitive prostate cancer and androgen-independent prostate cancer cell lines. Cell-cycle analyses revealed a G2-M cell-cycle arrest and a higher proportion of cells with 8N DNA content in androgen-independent prostate cancer cells only. Androgen-independent prostate cancer cells also displayed increased senescence-associated (SA)-β-galactosidase activity; increased γH2AX foci; genomic instability; and altered p15, p16, and p21 expression. In our mouse model, IKKε inhibitors also decreased tumor growth of androgen-independent prostate cancer xenografts but not 22Rv1 androgen-sensitive prostate cancer xenografts. Our study suggests that targeting IKKε with BX795 or Amlexanox in androgen-independent prostate cancer cells induces a senescence phenotype and demonstrates in vivo antitumor activity. These results strengthen the potential of exploiting IKKε as a therapeutic target.

High content screening and proteomic analysis identify a kinase inhibitor that rescues pathological phenotypes in a patient-derived model of Parkinson's disease

Combining high throughput screening approaches with induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-based disease modeling represents a promising unbiased strategy to identify therapies for neurodegenerative disorders. Here we applied high content imaging on iPSC-derived neurons from patients with familial Parkinson’s disease bearing the G209A (p.A53T) α-synuclein (αSyn) mutation and launched a screening campaign on a small kinase inhibitor library. We thus identified the multi-kinase inhibitor BX795 that at a single dose effectively restores disease-associated neurodegenerative phenotypes. Proteomics profiling mapped the molecular pathways underlying the protective effects of BX795, comprising a cohort of 118 protein-mediators of the core biological processes of RNA metabolism, protein synthesis, modification and clearance, and stress response, all linked to the mTORC1 signaling hub. In agreement, expression of human p.A53T-αSyn in neuronal cells affected key components of the mTORC1 pathway resulting in aberrant protein synthesis that was restored in the presence of BX795 with concurrent facilitation of autophagy. Taken together, we have identified a promising small molecule with neuroprotective actions as candidate therapeutic for PD and other protein conformational disorders.

miR-153-3p Targets βII Spectrin to Regulate Formaldehyde-Induced Cardiomyocyte Apoptosis

Background: Formaldehyde (FA) is ubiquitous in the environment and can be transferred to the fetus through placental circulation, causing miscarriage and congenital heart disease (CHD). Studies have shown that βII spectrin is necessary for cardiomyocyte survival and differentiation, and its loss leads to heart development defects and cardiomyocyte apoptosis. Additionally, previous studies have demonstrated that miRNA is essential in heart development and remodeling. However, whether miRNA regulates FA-induced CHD and cardiomyocyte apoptosis remains unclear. Methods: Using commercially available rat embryonic cardiomyocytes and a rat model of fetal cardiomyocyte apoptosis. Real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) and Western blot were performed to examine the level of miR-153-3p, βII spectrin, caspase 7, cleaved caspase7, Bax, Bcl-2 expression in embryonic cardiomyocytes and a rat model of fetal cardiomyocyte apoptosis. Apoptotic cell populations were evaluated by flow cytometry and Tunel. Luciferase activity assay and RNA pull-down assay were used to detect the interaction between miR-153-3p and βII spectrin. Masson's trichrome staining detects the degree of tissue fibrosis. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and Immunohistochemistry were used to detect the expression of miR-153-3p and βII spectrin in tissues. Results: Using commercially available rat embryonic cardiomyocytes and a rat model of fetal cardiomyocyte apoptosis, our studies indicate that miR-153-3p plays a regulatory role by directly targeting βII spectrin to promote cardiomyocyte apoptosis. miR-153-3p mainly regulates cardiomyocyte apoptosis by regulating the expression of caspase7, further elucidating the importance of apoptosis in heart development. Finally, the results with our animal model revealed that targeting the miR-153-3p/βII spectrin pathway effectively regulated FA-induced damage during heart development. Recovery experiments with miR-153-3p antagomir resulted in the reversal of FA-induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis and fetal cardiac fibrosis. Conclusion: This study investigated the molecular mechanism underpinning the role of βII spectrin in FA-induced CHD and the associated upstream miRNA pathway. The study findings suggest that miR-153-3p may provide a potential target for the clinical diagnosis and treatment of CHD.

5'-tiRNA-Cys-GCA regulates VSMC proliferation and phenotypic transition by targeting STAT4 in aortic dissection

Accumulating evidence shows that tRNA-derived fragments are a novel class of functional small non-coding RNA; however, their roles in aortic dissection (AD) are still unknown. In this study, we found that 5'-tiRNA-Cys-GCA was significantly downregulated in human and mouse models of aortic dissection. The abnormal proliferation, migration, and phenotypic transition of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) played a crucial role in the initiation and progression of aortic dissection, with 5'-tiRNA-Cys-GCA as a potential phenotypic switching regulator, because its overexpression inhibited the proliferation and migration of VSMCs and increased the expression of contractile markers. In addition, we verified that signal transducer and activator of transcription 4 (STAT4) was a direct downstream target of 5'-tiRNA-Cys-GCA. We found that the STAT4 upregulation in oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL)-treated VSMCs, which promoted cell proliferation, migration, and phenotypic transformation, was reversed by 5'-tiRNA-Cys-GCA. Furthermore, 5'-tiRNA-Cys-GCA treatment reduced the incidence and prevented the malignant process of angiotensin II- and β-aminopropionitrile-induced AD in mice. In conclusion, our findings reveal that 5'-tiRNA-Cys-GCA is a potential regulator of the AD pathological process via the STAT4 signaling pathway, providing a novel clinical target for the development of future treatment strategies for aortic dissection.

BX-795 inhibits neuroblastoma growth and enhances sensitivity towards chemotherapy

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AKT overexpression correlates with poor prognosis in neuroblastoma patients.

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BX-795 inhibits PDK1 and abrogates the AKT signaling pathway activation.

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BX-795 demonstrates strong efficacy in neuroblastoma spheroid tumor model.

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Combination with BX-795 synergistically enhances doxorubicin antitumor activity.

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BX-795 synergistically sensitized ALK mutated neuroblastoma cell lines to crizotinib.

High-risk neuroblastoma (NB) represents a major clinical challenge in pediatric oncology due to relapse of metastatic, drug-resistant disease, and treatment-related toxicities. An analysis of 1235 primary NB patient dataset revealed significant increase in AKT1 and AKT2 gene expression with cancer stage progression. Additionally, Both AKT1 and AKT2 expression inversely correlate with poor overall survival of NB patients. AKT1 and AKT2 genes code for AKT that drive a major oncogenic cell signaling pathway known in many cancers, including NB. To inhibit AKT pathway, we repurposed an antiviral inhibitor BX-795 that inhibits PDK1, an upstream activator of AKT. BX-795 potently inhibits NB cell proliferation and colony growth in a dose-dependent manner. BX-795 significantly enhances apoptosis and blocks cell cycle progression at mitosis phase in NB. Additionally, BX-795 potently inhibits tumor formation and growth in a NB spheroid tumor model. We further tested dual therapeutic approaches by combining BX-795 with either doxorubicin or crizotinib and found synergistic and significant inhibition of NB growth, in contrast to either drug alone. Overall, our data demonstrate that BX-795 inhibits AKT pathway to inhibit NB growth, and combining BX-795 with current therapies is an effective and clinically tractable therapeutic approach for NB.

Hsp90-associated DNA replication checkpoint protein and proteasome-subunit components are involved in the age-related macular degeneration

Background:

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of vision loss worldwide. However, the mechanisms involved in the development and progression of AMD are poorly delineated. We aimed to explore the critical genes involved in the progression of AMD.

Methods:

The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in AMD retinal pigment epithelial (RPE)/choroid tissues were identified using the microarray datasets GSE99248 and GSE125564, which were downloaded from the gene expression omnibus database. The overlapping DEGs from the two datasets were screened to identify DEG-related biological pathways using gene ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment analyses. The hub genes were identified from these DEGs through protein-protein interaction network analyses. The expression levels of hub genes were evaluated by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction following the induction of senescence in ARPE-19 with FK866. Following the identification of AMD-related key genes, the potential small molecule compounds targeting the key genes were predicted by PharmacoDB. Finally, a microRNA-gene interaction network was constructed.

Results:

Microarray analyses identified 174 DEGs in the AMD RPE compared to the healthy RPE samples. These DEGs were primarily enriched in the pathways involved in the regulation of DNA replication, cell cycle, and proteasome-mediated protein polyubiquitination. Among the top ten hub genes, HSP90AA1, CHEK1, PSMA4, PSMD4, and PSMD8 were upregulated in the senescent ARPE-19 cells. Additionally, the drugs targeting HSP90AA1, CHEK1, and PSMA4 were identified. We hypothesize that Hsa-miR-16-5p might target four out of the five key DEGs in the AMD RPE.

Conclusions:

Based on our findings, HSP90AA1 is likely to be a central gene controlling the DNA replication and proteasome-mediated polyubiquitination during the RPE senescence observed in the progression of AMD. Targeting HSP90AA1, CHEK1, PSMA4, PSMD4, and/or PSMD8 genes through specific miRNAs or small molecules might potentially alleviate the progression of AMD through attenuating RPE senescence.

Targeting non-coding RNAs in unstable atherosclerotic plaques: Mechanism, regulation, possibilities, and limitations

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) caused by arteriosclerosis are the leading cause of death and disability worldwide. In the late stages of atherosclerosis, the atherosclerotic plaque gradually expands in the blood vessels, resulting in vascular stenosis. When the unstable plaque ruptures and falls off, it blocks the vessel causing vascular thrombosis, leading to strokes, myocardial infarctions, and a series of other serious diseases that endanger people's lives. Therefore, regulating plaque stability is the main means used to address the high mortality associated with CVDs. The progression of the atherosclerotic plaque is a complex integration of vascular cell apoptosis, lipid metabolism disorders, inflammatory cell infiltration, vascular smooth muscle cell migration, and neovascular infiltration. More recently, emerging evidence has demonstrated that non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) play a significant role in regulating the pathophysiological process of atherosclerotic plaque formation by affecting the biological functions of the vasculature and its associated cells. The purpose of this paper is to comprehensively review the regulatory mechanisms involved in the susceptibility of atherosclerotic plaque rupture, discuss the limitations of current approaches to treat plaque instability, and highlight the potential clinical value of ncRNAs as novel diagnostic biomarkers and potential therapeutic strategies to improve plaque stability and reduce the risk of major cardiovascular events.

The regulatory roles of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase in cardiovascular disease

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (ARSs) are widely found in organisms, which can activate amino acids and make them bind to tRNA through ester bond to form the corresponding aminoyl-tRNA. The classic function of ARS is to provide raw materials for protein biosynthesis. Recently, emerging evidence demonstrates that ARSs play critical roles in controlling inflammation, immune responses, and tumorigenesis as well as other important physiological and pathological processes. With the recent development of genome and exon sequencing technology, as well as the discovery of new clinical cases, ARSs have been reported to be closely associated with a variety of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), particularly angiogenesis and cardiomyopathy. Intriguingly, aminoacylation was newly identified and reported to modify substrate proteins, thereby regulating protein activity and functions. Sensing the availability of intracellular amino acids is closely related to the regulation of a variety of cell physiology. In this review, we summarize the research progress on the mechanism of CVDs caused by abnormal ARS function and introduce the clinical phenotypes and characteristics of CVDs related to ARS dysfunction. We also highlight the potential roles of aminoacylation in CVDs. Finally, we discuss some of the limitations and challenges of present research. The current findings suggest the significant roles of ARSs involved in the progress of CVDs, which present the potential clinical values as novel diagnostic and therapeutic targets in CVD treatment.

Role of acetylation in doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity

As a potent chemotherapeutic agent, doxorubicin (DOX) is widely used for the treatment of a variety of cancers However, its clinical utility is limited by dose-dependent cardiotoxicity, and pathogenesis has traditionally been attributed to the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Accordingly, the prevention of DOX-induced cardiotoxicity is an indispensable goal to optimize therapeutic regimens and reduce morbidity. Acetylation is an emerging and important epigenetic modification regulated by histone deacetylases (HDACs) and histone acetyltransferases (HATs). Despite extensive studies of the molecular basis and biological functions of acetylation, the application of acetylation as a therapeutic target for cardiotoxicity is in the initial stage, and further studies are required to clarify the complex acetylation network and improve the clinical management of cardiotoxicity. In this review, we summarize the pivotal functions of HDACs and HATs in DOX-induced oxidative stress, the underlying mechanisms, the contributions of noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) and exercise-mediated deacetylases to cardiotoxicity. Furthermore, we describe research progress related to several important SIRT activators and HDAC inhibitors with potential clinical value for chemotherapy and cardiotoxicity. Collectively, a comprehensive understanding of specific roles and recent developments of acetylation in doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity will provide a basis for improved treatment outcomes in cancer and cardiovascular diseases.

Expression profiles and potential roles of transfer RNA-derived small RNAs in atherosclerosis

Knowledge regarding the relationship between the molecular mechanisms underlying atherosclerosis (AS) and transfer RNA-derived small RNAs (tsRNAs) is limited. This study illustrated the expression profile of tsRNAs, thus exploring its roles in AS pathogenesis. Small RNA sequencing was performed with four atherosclerotic arterial and four healthy subject samples. Using bioinformatics, the protein-protein interaction network and cellular experiments were constructed to predict the enriched signalling pathways and regulatory roles of tsRNAs in AS. Of the total 315 tsRNAs identified to be dysregulated in the AS group, 131 and 184 were up-regulated and down-regulated, respectively. Interestingly, the pathway of the differentiated expression of tsRNAs in cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) was implicated to be closely associated with AS. Particularly, tRF-Gly-GCC might participate in AS pathogenesis via regulating cell adhesion, proliferation, migration and phenotypic transformation in HUVECs and VSMCs. In conclusion, tsRNAs might help understand the molecular mechanisms of AS better. tRF-Gly-GCC may be a promising target for suppressing abnormal vessels functions, suggesting a novel strategy for preventing the progression of atherosclerosis.

A review on the role of TANK-binding kinase 1 signaling in cancer

TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1) regulates various biological processes including, NF-κB signaling, immune response, autophagy, cell division, Ras-mediated oncogenesis, and AKT pro-survival signaling. Enhanced TBK1 activity is associated with autoimmune diseases and cancer, suggesting its role in therapeutic targeting of interferonopathies. In addition, dysregulation of TBK1 activity promotes several inflammatory disorders and oncogenesis. Structural and biochemical study reports provide the molecular process of TBK1 activation and recap the substrate selection about TBK1. This review summarizes recent findings on the molecular mechanisms by which TBK1 is involved in cancer signaling. The IKK-ε and TBK1 are together associated with inflammatory diseases by inducing type I IFNs. Furthermore, TBK1 signaling regulates radiation-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition by controlling phosphorylation of GSK-3β and expression of Zinc finger E-box-binding homeobox 1, suggesting, TBK1 could be targeted for radiotherapy-induced metastasis therapy. Despite a considerable increase in the list of TBK1 inhibitors, only a few has potential to control cancer. Among them, a compound BX795 is considered a potent and selective inhibitor of TBK1. We discussed the therapeutic potential of small-molecule inhibitors of TBK1, particularly those with high selectivity, which will enable further exploration in the therapeutic management of cancer and inflammatory diseases.

TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1): An emerging therapeutic target for drug discovery

Dysregulation of TANK-binding kinase 1 (TBK1) homeostasis leads to the occurrence and progression of many diseases, such as inflammation, autoimmune diseases, metabolic diseases, and cancer. Therefore, there is a need to develop TBK1 inhibitors as therapeutic agents. In this review, we highlight the diverse biological functions of TBK1 and summarize the promising small-molecule inhibitors of TBK1 that have the potential to be developed as therapeutic candidates.

The cellular function and molecular mechanism of formaldehyde in cardiovascular disease and heart development

As a common air pollutant, formaldehyde is widely present in nature, industrial production and consumer products. Endogenous formaldehyde is mainly produced through the oxidative deamination of methylamine catalysed by semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase (SSAO) and is ubiquitous in human body fluids, tissues and cells. Vascular endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells are rich in this formaldehyde-producing enzyme and are easily damaged owing to consequent cytotoxicity. Consistent with this, increasing evidence suggests that the cardiovascular system and stages of heart development are also susceptible to the harmful effects of formaldehyde. Exposure to formaldehyde from different sources can induce heart disease such as arrhythmia, myocardial infarction (MI), heart failure (HF) and atherosclerosis (AS). In particular, long-term exposure to high concentrations of formaldehyde in pregnant women is more likely to affect embryonic development and cause heart malformations than long-term exposure to low concentrations of formaldehyde. Specifically, the ability of mouse embryos to effect formaldehyde clearance is far lower than that of the rat embryos, more readily allowing its accumulation. Formaldehyde may also exert toxic effects on heart development by inducing oxidative stress and cardiomyocyte apoptosis. This review focuses on the current progress in understanding the influence and underlying mechanisms of formaldehyde on cardiovascular disease and heart development.

Dipterocarpus tuberculatus Roxb. Ethanol Extract Has Anti-Inflammatory and Hepatoprotective Effects In Vitro and In Vivo by Targeting the IRAK1/AP-1 Pathway

Dipterocarpus tuberculatus Roxb. has been used traditionally as a remedy for many diseases, especially inflammation. Therefore, we analyzed and explored the mechanism of the anti-inflammatory effect of a Dipterocarpus tuberculatus Roxb. ethanol extract (Dt-EE). Dt-EE clearly and dose-dependently inhibited the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1β in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated RAW264.7 cells. Also, Dt-EE suppressed the activation of the MyD88/TRIF-mediated AP-1 pathway and the AP-1 pathway related proteins JNK2, MKK4/7, and TAK1, which occurred as a result of inhibiting the kinase activity of IRAK1 and IRAK4, the most upstream factors of the AP-1 pathway. Finally, Dt-EE displayed hepatoprotective activity in a mouse model of hepatitis induced with LPS/D-galactosamine (D-GalN) through decreasing the serum levels of alanine aminotransferase and suppressing the activation of JNK and IRAK1. Therefore, our results strongly suggest that Dt-EE could be a candidate anti-inflammatory herbal medicine with IRAK1/AP-1 inhibitory and hepatoprotective properties.

MicroRNA-302c-3p inhibits endothelial cell pyroptosis via directly targeting NOD-, LRR- and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 in atherosclerosis

Inflammation and endothelial dysfunction are important participants and drivers in atherosclerosis. NOD-, LRR- and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activation and the resulting pyroptosis are involved in the initiation and vicious circle of chronic inflammation, thus playing an indispensable role in atherosclerosis. Accordingly, blocking the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome may be a promising treatment strategy to blunt the progression of atherosclerosis. In this study, it was demonstrated that miR-302c-3p exerted anti-pyroptosis effects by directly targeting NLRP3 in vivo and in vitro. In brief, the expression of miR-302c-3p was down-regulated whereas the expression of NLRP3 was up-regulated in human plaques and in vitro pyroptosis model of endothelial cells. Overexpression of miR-302c-3p suppressed endothelial cell pyroptosis by targeting specific sites of NLRP3. By comparison, down-regulation of endogenous miR-302c-3p led to the opposite results, which were reversed by silencing the expression of NLRP3. Finally, the up-regulation of miR-302c-3p inhibited the inflammation and pyroptosis of atherosclerosis mouse model. In conclusion, miR-302c-3p may be a powerful and attractive target for suppressing endothelial inflammation and pyroptosis, providing a novel strategy for preventing or alleviating the progression of atherosclerosis.

Nicotine: Regulatory roles and mechanisms in atherosclerosis progression

Smoking is an independent risk factor for atherosclerosis. The smoke produced by tobacco burning contains more than 7000 chemicals, among which nicotine is closely related to the occurrence and development of atherosclerosis. Nicotine, a selective cholinergic agonist, accelerates the formation of atherosclerosis by stimulating nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) located in neuronal and non-neuronal tissues. This review introduces the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and the mechanisms involving nicotine and its receptors. Herein, we focus on the various roles of nicotine in atherosclerosis, such as upregulation of growth factors, inflammation, and the dysfunction of endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) as well as macrophages. In addition, nicotine can stimulate the generation of reactive oxygen species, cause abnormal lipid metabolism, and activate immune cells leading to the onset and progression of atherosclerosis. Exosomes, are currently a research hotspot, due to their important connections with macrophages and the VSMC, and may represent a novel application into future preventive treatment to promote the prevention of smoking-related atherosclerosis. In this review, we will elaborate on the regulatory mechanism of nicotine on atherosclerosis, as well as the effects of interference with nicotine receptors and the use of exosomes to prevent atherosclerosis development.

tsRNAs: Novel small molecules from cell function and regulatory mechanism to therapeutic targets

tsRNAs are small fragments of RNAs with specific lengths that are generated by particular ribonucleases, such as dicer and angiogenin (ANG), clipping on the rings of transfer RNAs (tRNAs) in specific cells and tissues under specific conditions. Depending on where the splicing site is, tsRNAs can be segmented into two main types, tRNA‐derived stress‐induced RNAs (tiRNAs) and tRNA‐derived fragments (tRFs). Many studies have shown that tsRNAs are functional molecules, not the random degradative products of tRNAs. Notably, due to their regulatory mechanism in regulating mRNA stability, transcription, ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis and RNA reverse transcription, tsRNAs are significantly involved in the cell function, such as cell proliferation, migration, cycle and apoptosis, as well as the occurrence and development of a variety of diseases. In addition, tsRNAs may represent a new generation of clinical biomarkers or therapeutic targets because of their stable structures, high conservation and widely distribution, particularly in the peripheral tissues, bodily fluids and exosomes. In this review, we describe the generation, function and mechanism of tsRNAs and illustrate the current research progress of tsRNAs in various diseases, highlight their potentials as biomarkers and therapeutic targets in clinical application. Although our understanding of tsRNAs is still in infancy, the application prospects shown in this field deserve further exploration.

βII spectrin (SPTBN1): biological function and clinical potential in cancer and other diseases

βII spectrin, the most common isoform of non-erythrocyte spectrin, is a cytoskeleton protein present in all nucleated cells. Interestingly, βII spectrin is essential for the development of various organs such as nerve, epithelium, inner ear, liver and heart. The functions of βII spectrin include not only establishing and maintaining the cell structure but also regulating a variety of cellular functions, such as cell apoptosis, cell adhesion, cell spreading and cell cycle regulation. Notably, βII spectrin dysfunction is associated with embryonic lethality and the DNA damage response. More recently, the detection of altered βII spectrin expression in tumors indicated that βII spectrin might be involved in the development and progression of cancer. Its mutations and disorders could result in developmental disabilities and various diseases. The versatile roles of βII spectrin in disease have been examined in an increasing number of studies; nonetheless, the exact mechanisms of βII spectrin are still poorly understood. Thus, we summarize the structural features and biological roles of βII spectrin and discuss its molecular mechanisms and functions in development, homeostasis, regeneration and differentiation. This review highlight the potential effects of βII spectrin dysfunction in cancer and other diseases, outstanding questions for the future investigation of therapeutic targets. The investigation of the regulatory mechanism of βII spectrin signal inactivation and recovery may bring hope for future therapy of related diseases.

NLRP3 inflammasome in endothelial dysfunction

Inflammasomes are a class of cytosolic protein complexes. They act as cytosolic innate immune signal receptors to sense pathogens and initiate inflammatory responses under physiological and pathological conditions. The NLR-family pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is the most characteristic multimeric protein complex. Its activation triggers the cleavage of pro-interleukin (IL)-1β and pro-IL-18, which are mediated by caspase-1, and secretes mature forms of these mediators from cells to promote the further inflammatory process and oxidative stress. Simultaneously, cells undergo pro-inflammatory programmed cell death, termed pyroptosis. The danger signals for activating NLRP3 inflammasome are very extensive, especially reactive oxygen species (ROS), which act as an intermediate trigger to activate NLRP3 inflammasome, exacerbating subsequent inflammatory cascades and cell damage. Vascular endothelium at the site of inflammation is actively involved in the regulation of inflammation progression with important implications for cardiovascular homeostasis as a dynamically adaptable interface. Endothelial dysfunction is a hallmark and predictor for cardiovascular ailments or adverse cardiovascular events, such as coronary artery disease, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and hypercholesterolemia. The loss of proper endothelial function may lead to tissue swelling, chronic inflammation, and the formation of thrombi. As such, elimination of endothelial cell inflammation or activation is of clinical relevance. In this review, we provided a comprehensive perspective on the pivotal role of NLRP3 inflammasome activation in aggravating oxidative stress and endothelial dysfunction and the possible underlying mechanisms. Furthermore, we highlighted the contribution of noncoding RNAs to NLRP3 inflammasome activation-associated endothelial dysfunction, and outlined potential clinical drugs targeting NLRP3 inflammasome involved in endothelial dysfunction. Collectively, this summary provides recent developments and perspectives on how NLRP3 inflammasome interferes with endothelial dysfunction and the potential research value of NLRP3 inflammasome as a potential mediator of endothelial dysfunction.

Non-coding RNAs in aortic dissection: From biomarkers to therapeutic targets

Aortic dissection (AD) is the rupture of the aortic intima, causing the blood in the cavity to enter the middle of the arterial wall. Without urgent and proper treatment, the mortality rate increases to 50% within 48 hours. Most patients present with acute onset of symptoms, including sudden severe pain and complex and variable clinical manifestations, which can be easily misdiagnosed. Despite this, the molecular mechanisms underlying AD are still unknown. Recently, non‐coding RNAs have emerged as novel regulators of gene expression. Previous studies have proven that ncRNAs can regulate several cardiovascular diseases; therefore, their potential as clinical biomarkers and novel therapeutic targets for AD has aroused widespread interest. To date, several studies have reported that microRNAs are crucially involved in AD progression. Additionally, several long non‐coding RNAs and circular RNAs have been found to be differentially expressed in AD samples, suggesting their potential roles in vascular physiology and disease. In this review, we discuss the functions of ncRNAs in AD pathophysiology and highlight their potential as biomarkers and therapeutic targets for AD. Meanwhile, we present the animal models previously used for AD research, as well as the specific methods for constructing mouse or rat AD models.

Functional roles and mechanisms of ginsenosides from Panax ginseng in atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a leading cause of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) and it results in a high rate of death worldwide, with an increased prevalence with age despite advances in lifestyle management and drug therapy. Atherosclerosis is a chronic progressive inflammatory process, and it mainly presents with lipid accumulation, foam cell proliferation, inflammatory response, atherosclerotic plaque formation and rupture, thrombosis, and vascular calcification. Therefore, there is a great need for reliable therapeutic drugs or remedies to cure or alleviate atherosclerosis and reduce the societal burden. Ginsenosides are natural steroid glycosides and triterpene saponins obtained mainly from the plant ginseng. Several recent studies have reported that ginsenosides have a variety of pharmacological activities against several diseases including inflammation, cancer and cardiovascular diseases. This review focuses on describing the different pharmacological functions and underlying mechanisms of various active ginsenosides (Rb1,-Rd, -F, -Rg1, -Rg2, and -Rg3, and compound K) for atherosclerosis, which could provide useful insights for developing novel and effective anti-cardiovascular drugs.