A novel small molecule STAT3 inhibitor SLSI-1216 suppresses proliferation and tumor growth of triple-negative breast cancer cells through apoptotic induction

Anti-cancer potential of casein and its derivatives: novel strategies for cancer treatment

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide, with over 10 million fatalities annually. While tumors can be surgically removed and treated with chemotherapy, radiotherapy, immunotherapy, hormonal therapy, or combined therapies, current treatments often result in toxic side effects in normal tissue. Therefore, researchers are actively seeking ways to selectively eliminate cancerous cells, minimizing the toxic side effects in normal tissue. Caseins and its derivatives have shown promising anti-cancer potential, demonstrating antitumor and cytotoxic effects on cells from various tumor types without causing harm to normal cells. Collectively, these data reveals advancements in the study of caseins and their derivative peptides, particularly providing a comprehensive understanding of the molecular mechanism of action in cancer therapy. These mechanisms occur through various signaling pathways, including (i) the increase of interferon-associated STAT1 signaling, (ii) the suppression of stemness-related markers such as CD44, (iii) the attenuation of the STAT3/HIF1-α signaling, (iv) the down-expression of uPAR and PAI-1, (v) the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and reduced intracellular ATP production, (vi) the increase of caspase-3 activity, and (vii) the suppression of TLR4/NF-кB signaling. Therefore, we conclude that casein could be an effective adjuvant for cancer treatment.

Identifying the mechanism of polysaccharopeptide against breast cancer based on network pharmacology and experimental verification

Polysaccharopeptide (PSP) is a potential active component in traditional Chinese medicine because of its anticancer effects on a variety of cancer cells and as immune enhancers of the immune system. Previous studies on the role of PSP in breast cancer have been limited, and the mechanism has not been clarified. This study is based on network pharmacology and molecular docking technology to predict the possible target of PSP treatment of breast cancer, and use experiments to verify the effect and mechanism of PSP on breast cancer. In this study, 287 PSP targets were obtained using SwissTargetPrediction database and PharmMapper database, and 183 breast cancer targets were obtained using DisGenNET database. By intersections of PSP targets and breast cancer targets, a total of 10 intersections were obtained. GO functional enrichment, KEGG pathway enrichment and molecular docking of these 10 target genes were performed to obtain the potential targets of PSP on breast cancer. In vitro experiments, we found that PSP significantly inhibited the proliferation and induced apoptosis of breast cancer cell lines MDA-MB-231, SUM-159 and MCF-7. Western Blot results showed that PSP could down-regulate the expression of p-JAK2 and p-STAT3 proteins. Similarly, the results of in vivo experiments showed that PSP can directly inhibit the tumor of MDA-MB-231 tumor-bearing mice, and the mechanism of action is mainly to inhibit the JAK2-STAT3 pathway. The above results were consistent with the results of network pharmacology, which provides a scientific basis for the clinical application of PSP in breast cancer patients.

Potential therapeutic targets of the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway in triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) poses a significant clinical challenge due to its propensity for metastasis and poor prognosis. TNBC evades the body's immune system recognition and attack through various mechanisms, including the Janus Kinase 2 (JAK2)/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) signaling pathway. This pathway, characterized by heightened activity in numerous solid tumors, exhibits pronounced activation in specific TNBC subtypes. Consequently, targeting the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway emerges as a promising and precise therapeutic strategy for TNBC. The signal transduction cascade of the JAK2/STAT3 pathway predominantly involves receptor tyrosine kinases, the tyrosine kinase JAK2, and the transcription factor STAT3. Ongoing preclinical studies and clinical research are actively investigating this pathway as a potential therapeutic target for TNBC treatment. This article comprehensively reviews preclinical and clinical investigations into TNBC treatment by targeting the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway using small molecule compounds. The review explores the role of the JAK2/STAT3 pathway in TNBC therapeutics, evaluating the benefits and limitations of active inhibitors and proteolysis-targeting chimeras in TNBC treatment. The aim is to facilitate the development of novel small-molecule compounds that target TNBC effectively. Ultimately, this work seeks to contribute to enhancing therapeutic efficacy for patients with TNBC.

Design, Synthesis, and Biological Activity of Marinacarboline Analogues as STAT3 Pathway Inhibitors for Docetaxel-Resistant Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Metastatic triple-negative breast cancer (mTNBC) is a fatal type of breast cancer (BC), and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) has emerged as an effective target for mTNBC. In the present study, compound MC0704 was found to be a novel synthetic STAT3 pathway inhibitor, and its potential antitumor activity was demonstrated using in vitro and in vivo models in docetaxel-resistant TNBC cells. Based on marinacarboline (MC), a series β-carboline derivatives were synthesized and investigated for their antitumor activities against docetaxel-resistant MDA-MB-231 (MDA-MB-231-DTR) cells. Combining antiproliferation and STAT3 inhibitory activities, MC0704 was selected as the most promising β-carboline compound. MC0704 effectively impeded the metastatic potential of MDA-MB-231-DTR cells in vitro, and the combination of MC0704 and docetaxel exhibited potent antitumor activities in a xenograft mouse model. These findings suggested that MC0704 can be a lead candidate as a target therapeutic agent for TNBC patients with docetaxel resistance.

Ketoprofen suppresses triple negative breast cancer cell growth by inducing apoptosis and inhibiting autophagy

BACKGROUND

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is an invasive phenotype with undesirable clinical features, poor prognosis, and therapy resistance. Ketoprofen is a Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) with anti-tumor properties.

AIM

To investigate the effects of Ketoprofen on apoptosis and autophagy in TNBC cell line MDA-MB-231.

METHODS

The cytotoxic activity of Ketoprofen was assayed by the MTS method. Flowcytometry was utilized to measure the number of apoptotic MDA-MB-231 cells. The expression levels of apoptosis and autophagy markers, JAK2 and STAT3 were determined using quantitative real time-PCR (qRT-PCR) and western blotting methods.

RESULTS

Ketoprofen significantly decreased the proliferation of MDA-MB-231 cells compared to control cells. It also considerably induced apoptosis and apoptotic markers in these cells in comparison to controls. Treating the MADA-MB-231 cell line with Ketoprofen had an inhibitory effect on autophagy markers in this cell line. The use of FasL, as a death ligand, and ZB4, as an antibody that blocks the extrinsic pathway of apoptosis, revealed the involvement of the extrinsic pathway in the apoptosis-stimulating effect of Ketoprofen in the MADA-MB-231 cell line. Ketoprofen also hindered the phosphorylation and activation of JAK2 and STAT molecules leading to the inhibition of the JAK/STAT pathway in this TNBC cell line.

CONCLUSION

The outcomes of this study uncovered the anti-TNBC activity of Ketoprofen by inducing apoptosis and inhibiting viability and autophagy in MADA-MB-231 cells. Our data also suggested that Ketoprofen impedes apoptosis in TNBC cells by two different mechanisms including the induction of the extrinsic apoptotic pathway and inhibition of the JAK/STAT signaling.

β-Caryophyllene Counteracts Chemoresistance Induced by Cigarette Smoke in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer MDA-MB-468 Cells

Exposure to cigarette smoke (CS) has been associated with an increased risk of fatal breast cancers and recurrence, along with chemoresistance and chemotherapy impairment. This strengthens the interest in chemopreventive agents to be exploited both in healthy and oncological subjects to prevent or repair CS damage. In the present study, we evaluated the chemopreventive properties of the natural sesquiterpene β-caryophyllene towards the damage induced by cigarette smoke condensate (CSC) in triple negative breast cancer MDA-MB-468 cells. Particularly, we assessed the ability of the sesquiterpene to interfere with the mechanisms exploited by CSC to promote cell survival and chemoresistance, including genomic instability, cell cycle progress, autophagy/apoptosis, cell migration and related pathways. β-Caryophyllene was found to be able to increase the CSC-induced death of MDA-MB-468 cells, likely triggering oxidative stress, cell cycle arrest and apoptosis; moreover, it hindered cell recovery, autophagy activation and cell migration; at last, a marked inhibition of the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) activation was highlighted: this could represent a key mechanism of the chemoprevention by β-caryophyllene. Although further studies are required to confirm the in vivo efficacy of β-caryophyllene, the present results suggest a novel strategy to reduce the harmful effect of smoke in cancer patients and to improve the survival expectations in breast cancer women.

LLL12B, a Novel Small-Molecule STAT3 Inhibitor, Induces Apoptosis and Suppresses Cell Migration and Tumor Growth in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cells

Persistent STAT3 signaling plays a pivotal role in human tumor malignancy, including triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). There are few treatment options currently available for TNBC; thus, given its importance to cancer, STAT3 is a potential cancer therapeutic target and is the focus of drug discovery efforts. In this study, we tested a novel orally bioavailable small-molecule STAT3 inhibitor, LLL12B, in human MDA-MB-231, SUM159, and murine 4T1 TNBC cell lines. TNBC cells frequently expressed persistent STAT3 phosphorylation and their cell viability was sensitive to STAT3 knockdown by siRNA. LLL12B selectively inhibited the IL-6-mediated induction of STAT3 phosphorylation, but had little effect on the IFN-γ-mediated induction of STAT1 phosphorylation nor the EGF-mediated induction of ERK phosphorylation. In addition, targeting STAT3 with LLL12B induced apoptosis, reduced colony formation ability, and inhibited cell migration in TNBC cells. Furthermore, LLL12B suppressed the tumor growth of the MDA-MB-231 TNBC cells in a mammary fat pad mouse tumor model in vivo. Together, our findings support the concept that targeting persistent STAT3 signaling using the novel small-molecule LLL12B is a potential approach for TNBC therapy.

Inhibiting STAT3 signaling pathway by natural products for cancer prevention and therapy: In vitro and in vivo activity and mechanisms of action

Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) plays a critical role in signal transmission from the plasma membrane to the nucleus, regulating the expression of genes involved in essential cell functions and controlling the processes of cell cycle progression and apoptosis. Thus, STAT3 has been elucidated as a promising target for developing anticancer drugs. Many natural products have been reported to inhibit the STAT3 signaling pathway during the past two decades and have exhibited significant anticancer activities in vitro and in vivo. However, there is no FDA-approved STAT3 inhibitor yet. The major mechanisms of these natural product inhibitors of the STAT3 signaling pathway include targeting the upstream regulators of STAT3, directly binding to the STAT3 SH2 domain and inhibiting its activation, inhibiting STAT3 phosphorylation and/or dimerization, and others. In the present review, we have systematically discussed the development of these natural product inhibitors of STAT3 signaling pathway as well as their in vitro and in vivo anticancer activity and mechanisms of action. Outlooks and perspectives on the associated challenges are provided as well.

STAT3-EMT axis in tumors: modulation of cancer metastasis, stemness and therapy response

Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) mechanism is responsible for metastasis of tumor cells and their spread to various organs and tissues of body, providing undesirable prognosis. In addition to migration, EMT increases stemness and mediates therapy resistance. Hence, pathways involved in EMT regulation should be highlighted. STAT3 is an oncogenic pathway that can elevate growth rate and migratory ability of cancer cells and induce drug resistance. The inhibition of STAT3 signaling impairs cancer progression and promotes chemotherapy-mediated cell death. Present review focuses on STAT3 and EMT interaction in modulating cancer migration. First of all, STAT3 is an upstream mediator of EMT and is able to induce EMT-mediated metastasis in brain tumors, thoracic cancers and gastrointestinal cancers. Therefore, STAT3 inhibition significantly suppresses cancer metastasis and improves prognosis of patients. EMT regulators such as ZEB1/2 proteins, TGF-β, Twist, Snail and Slug are affected by STAT3 signaling to stimulate cancer migration and invasion. Different molecular pathways such as miRNAs, lncRNAs and circRNAs modulate STAT3/EMT axis. Furthermore, we discuss how STAT3 and EMT interaction affects therapy response of cancer cells. Finally, we demonstrate targeting STAT3/EMT axis by anti-tumor agents and clinical application of this axis for improving patient prognosis.

Antitumor Activity of Rutaecarpine in Human Colorectal Cancer Cells by Suppression of Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling

Alkaloids derived from natural products have been traditionally used to treat various diseases, including cancers. Rutaecarpine (1), a β-carboline-type alkaloid obtained from Evodia rutaecarpa, has been previously reported as an anti-inflammatory agent. Nonetheless, its anticancer activity and the underlying molecular mechanisms remain to be explored. In the procurement of Wnt/β-catenin inhibitors from natural alkaloids, 1 was found to exhibit activity against the Wnt/β-catenin-response reporter gene. Since the abnormal activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling is highly involved in colon carcinogenesis, the antitumor activity and molecular mechanisms of 1 were investigated in colorectal cancer (CRC) cells. The antiproliferative activity of 1 was associated with the suppression of the Wnt/β-catenin-mediated signaling pathway and its target gene expression in human CRC cells. 1 also induced G₀/G₁ cell cycle arrest and apoptotic cell death, and the antimigration and anti-invasion potential of 1 was confirmed through epithelial-mesenchymal transition biomarker inhibition by the regulation of Wnt signaling. The antitumor activity of 1 was supported in an Ls174T-implanted xenograft mouse model via Wnt target gene regulation. Overall, these findings suggest that targeting the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway by 1 is a promising therapeutic option for the treatment of human CRC harboring β-catenin mutation.

A Michael Acceptor Analogue, SKSI-0412, Down-Regulates Inflammation and Proliferation Factors through Suppressing Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 3 Signaling in IL-17A-Induced Human Keratinocyte

The activation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), as well as up-regulation of cytokines and growth factors to promote STAT3 activation, have been found in the epidermis of psoriatic lesions. Recently, a series of synthetic compounds possessing the Michael acceptor have been reported as STAT3 inhibitors by covalently binding to cysteine of STAT3. We synthesized a Michael acceptor analog, SKSI-0412, and confirmed the binding affinity between STAT3 and SKSI-0412. We hypothesized that the SKSI-0412 can inhibit interleukin (IL)-17A-induced inflammation in keratinocytes. The introduction of IL-17A increased the phosphorylation of STAT3 in keratinocytes, whereas the inactivation of STAT3 by SKSI-0412 reduced IL-17A-induced STAT3 phosphorylation and IκBζ expression. In addition, human β defensin-2 and S100A7, which are regulated by IκBζ, were significantly decreased with SKSI-0412 administration. We also confirmed that SKSI-0412 regulates cell proliferation, which is the major phenotype of psoriasis. Based on these results, we suggest targeting STAT3 with SKSI-0412 as a novel therapeutic strategy to regulate IL-17A-induced psoriatic inflammation in keratinocytes.

Recent Update on Development of Small-Molecule STAT3 Inhibitors for Cancer Therapy: From Phosphorylation Inhibition to Protein Degradation

Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) is a transcription factor that regulates various biological processes, including proliferation, metastasis, angiogenesis, immune response, and chemoresistance. In normal cells, STAT3 is tightly regulated to maintain a transiently active state, while persistent STAT3 activation occurs frequently in cancers, associating with a poor prognosis and tumor progression. Targeting the STAT3 protein is a potentially promising therapeutic strategy for tumors. Although none of the STAT3 inhibitors has been marketed yet, a few of them have succeeded in entering clinical trials. This Review aims to systematically summarize the progress of the last 5 years in the discovery of directive STAT3 small-molecule inhibitors and degraders, focusing primarily on their structural features, design strategies, and bioactivities. We hope this Review will shed light on future drug design and inhibitor optimization to accelerate the discovery process of STAT3 inhibitors or degraders.

Antitumor Activity of Pulvomycin via Targeting Activated-STAT3 Signaling in Docetaxel-Resistant Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cells

Although docetaxel-based regimens are common and effective for early-stage triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) treatment, acquired drug resistance frequently occurs. Therefore, a novel therapeutic strategy for docetaxel-resistant TNBC is urgently required. Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) plays a pivotal role in the tumorigenesis and metastasis of numerous cancers, and STAT3 signaling is aberrantly activated in TNBC cells. In this study, a docetaxel-resistant TNBC cell line (MDA-MB-231-DTR) was established, and mechanisms for the antitumor activity of pulvomycin, a novel STAT3 inhibitor isolated from marine-derived actinomycete, were investigated. Levels of activated STAT3 (p-STAT3 (Y705)) increased in docetaxel-resistant cells, and knockdown of STAT3 recovered the sensitivity to docetaxel in MDA-MB-231-DTR cells. Pulvomycin effectively inhibited the proliferation of both cell lines. In addition, pulvomycin suppressed the activation of STAT3 and subsequently induced G0/G1 cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Pulvomycin also significantly inhibited the invasion and migration of MDA-MB-231-DTR cells through the modulation of epithelial-mesenchymal transition markers. In an MDA-MB-231-DTR-bearing xenograft mouse model, the combination of pulvomycin and docetaxel effectively inhibited tumor growth through STAT3 regulation. Thus, our findings demonstrate that the combination of docetaxel and STAT3 inhibitors is an effective strategy for overcoming docetaxel resistance in TNBC.

Antitumor Activity of Asperphenin B by Induction of Apoptosis and Regulation of Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate Dehydrogenase in Human Colorectal Cancer Cells

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a common and intractable malignancy with a high mortality risk. Conventional chemotherapeutics are effective for patients with early stage CRC, but the majority of deaths of CRC patients are linked to acquired drug resistance or metastasis occurrence. Asperphenin B (1), a lipopeptidyl benzophenone isolated from a marine-derived Aspergillus sp. fungus, reportedly possesses antiproliferative activity against cancer cells. However, its antitumor activity and the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unexplored. In this study, 1 induced G2/M phase cell cycle arrest and subsequent apoptotic cell death and inhibited tumor growth in a xenograft model. The 1-induced G2/M phase arrest was associated with the regulation of checkpoint proteins, including Chk1/2 and Cdc25c. The 1-induced apoptosis was correlated with an upregulation of p53 and cleaved caspases and a downregulation of survivin. Further experiments revealed that 1-mediated suppression of migration and invasion of metastatic HCT116 cells was partially associated with the downregulation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) expression. The antimetastatic potential of 1 was also confirmed by E-cadherin upregulation and N-cadherin and Snail downregulation, which were in turn associated with the GAPDH regulation. These findings highlight the potential use of 1 as a novel candidate for treating metastatic CRC with the modulation of GAPDH function.

Synthesis and biological activity of selenopsammaplin A and its analogues as antitumor agents with DOT1L inhibitory activity

Disruptor of telomeric silencing-1 like (DOT1L) is a histone H3 methyltransferase which specifically catalyzes the methylation of histone H3 lysine-79 residue. Recent findings demonstrate that DOT1L is abnormally overexpressed and the upregulated DOT1L evokes the proliferation and metastasis in human breast cancer cells. Therefore, the DOT1L inhibitor is considered a promising strategy to treat breast cancers. Non-nucleoside DOT1L inhibitors, selenopsammaplin A and its analogues, were firstly reported in the present study. Selenopsammaplin A was newly designed and synthesized with 25% overall yield in 8 steps from 3-bromo-4-hydroxybenzaldahyde, and thirteen analogues of selenopsammaplin A were prepared for structure-activity relationship studies of their cytotoxicity against cancer cells and inhibitory activity toward DOT1L for antitumor potential. All synthetic selenopsammaplin A analogues exhibited the higher cytotoxicity compared to psammaplin A with up to 6 - 60 times depending on cancer cells, and most analogues showed significant inhibitory activities against DOT1L. Among the prepared analogues, the phenyl analogue (10) possessed the most potent activity with both cytotoxicity and inhibition of DOT1L. Compound 10 also exhibited the antitumor and antimetastatic activity in an orthotopic mouse metastasis model implanted with MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells. These biological findings suggest that analogue 10 is a promising candidate for development as a cancer chemotherapeutic agent in breast cancers.

Inhibition of DOT1L by Half-Selenopsammaplin A Analogs Suppresses Tumor Growth and EMT-Mediated Metastasis in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Due to a lack of hormone receptors, current treatment strategies for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) are limited with frequent disease recurrence and metastasis. Recent findings have suggested that aberrant methylation of histone H3 lysine 79 residue (H3K79me) by the histone methyltransferase disruptor of telomeric silencing 1-like (DOT1L) is a potential therapeutic target for TNBC clinical management. Therefore, we developed DOT1L inhibitors as potential antitumor agents against TNBC cells. We reveal that a synthetic half-selenopsammaplin A analog 9l (subsequently known as 9l) exhibited inhibitory activity against DOT1L-mediated H3K79 methylation, and showed antitumor activity in TNBC cells. The analog 9l also significantly inhibited TNBC invasion and migration via the modulation of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers, including N-cadherin and vimentin downregulation and E-cadherin upregulation. In an MDA-MB-231/Luc-implanted orthotopic mouse metastasis model, treatment with 9l effectively inhibited tumor growth and lung metastasis via DOT1L regulatory activity and EMT processes. Taken together, these findings highlight the potential of 9l as a novel therapeutic candidate for treating metastatic TNBC via DOT1L modulation.

STAT3 and GR Cooperate to Drive Gene Expression and Growth of Basal-Like Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Breast cancers are divided into subtypes with different prognoses and treatment responses based on global differences in gene expression. Luminal breast cancer gene expression and proliferation are driven by estrogen receptor alpha, and targeting this transcription factor is the most effective therapy for this subtype. By contrast, it remains unclear which transcription factors drive the gene expression signature that defines basal-like triple-negative breast cancer, and there are no targeted therapies approved to treat this aggressive subtype. In this study, we utilized integrated genomic analysis of DNA methylation, chromatin accessibility, transcription factor binding, and gene expression in large collections of breast cancer cell lines and patient tumors to identify transcription factors responsible for the basal-like gene expression program. Glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and STAT3 bind to the same genomic regulatory regions, which were specifically open and unmethylated in basal-like breast cancer. These transcription factors cooperated to regulate expression of hundreds of genes in the basal-like gene expression signature, which were associated with poor prognosis. Combination treatment with small-molecule inhibitors of both transcription factors resulted in synergistic decreases in cell growth in cell lines and patient-derived organoid models. This study demonstrates that GR and STAT3 cooperate to regulate the basal-like breast cancer gene expression program and provides the basis for improved therapy for basal-like triple-negative breast cancer through rational combination of STAT3 and GR inhibitors. SIGNIFICANCE: This study demonstrates that GR and STAT3 cooperate to activate the canonical gene expression signature of basal-like triple-negative breast cancer and that combination treatment with STAT3 and GR inhibitors could provide synergistic therapeutic efficacy.