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Henschen D, Swift K, Taylor R, Scott E, May M, Ngouajio B, Jenkins K, Johnson Iii F, Jeong I, Silva G, Matson L, Lowery-Gionta E. Development of an Animal Model of Military-Relevant Traumatic Stress. Mil Med 2023; 188:561-571. [PMID: 35266517 DOI: 10.1093/milmed/usac056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Acute Stress Reactions (ASRs) affect a subgroup of individuals who experience traumatic stress. In the context of military operations, such reactions are often termed Combat and Operational Stress Reactions (COSRs). COSRs not only encompass all symptoms of ASRs but also include additional symptoms related to military combat and may develop at a rate higher than the general public experiences ASRs. Despite an obvious need, there are currently no approved pharmacologic treatments or guidelines for ASR and/or COSR. Preclinical rodent stress models and behavioral assessments are used to evaluate pharmacotherapies and elucidate underlying mechanisms. Here, we combined established traumatic stress models to develop a model of traumatic stress relevant to military trauma exposure and measured behavioral outcomes that reflect outcomes observed in ASRs and COSRs. MATERIALS AND METHODS Adult male rats underwent exposure to either a combination of two or three traumatic stress exposures (e.g., predator exposure, underwater trauma (UWT), and/or inescapable shock) or control procedures. Behavioral performance on the open field, elevated plus maze, and acoustic startle response (SR) was then assessed 24- and 48-hours following stress/control procedures. RESULTS In Experiment 1, rats were exposed to a two-stressor model, where predator exposure was coupled with UWT. Minor behavioral deficits were observed in SR for stress-exposed rats as compared to controls. In Experiment 2, inescapable shock was added to predator exposure and UWT. Behavioral performance deficits were observed across all behavioral tests. In Experiment 3, procedures from Experiment 2 were repeated with the only major modification being a shortened predator exposure duration, which resulted in performance deficits in SR only. CONCLUSIONS We found that the three-stressor model of Experiment 2 resulted in the greatest overall behavioral disturbance (both in the number of variables and magnitude of stress effects). Interestingly, behavioral deficits elicited from the shorter predator exposure were distinct from those observed with longer predator exposure times. Together, these results generally suggest that combined preclinical stressors with military-relevant elements result in behavioral performance deficits reflective of post-trauma phenotypes in Soldiers. The present findings support the use of both physical and psychological stressors to model operationally relevant traumatic stress exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drew Henschen
- Behavioral Biology Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Kevin Swift
- Behavioral Biology Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Rachel Taylor
- Behavioral Biology Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Emily Scott
- Behavioral Biology Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Matthew May
- Behavioral Biology Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Boris Ngouajio
- Behavioral Biology Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Kilana Jenkins
- Behavioral Biology Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Fred Johnson Iii
- Behavioral Biology Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Isaac Jeong
- Behavioral Biology Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Gabriella Silva
- Behavioral Biology Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Liana Matson
- Behavioral Biology Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Emily Lowery-Gionta
- Behavioral Biology Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
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Cravedi KD, May MD, Abettan JA, Huckleberry KA, Trettel SG, Vuong CV, Altman DE, Gauchan S, Shansky RM, Matson LM, Sousa JC, Lowery-Gionta EG, Moore NLT. Response and recovery of endocrine, behavioral, and neuronal morphology outcomes after different traumatic stressor exposures in male rats. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2021; 133:105394. [PMID: 34474197 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2021.105394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Preclinical models of organismal response to traumatic stress (threat of death or serious injury) can be monitored using neuroendocrine, behavioral, and structural metrics. While many rodent models of traumatic stress have provided a glimpse into select components of the physiological response to acute and chronic stressors, few studies have directly examined the potential differences between stressors and their potential outcomes. To address this gap, we conducted a multi-level comparison of the immediate and longer-term effects of two types of acute traumatic stressors. Adult male rats were exposed to either underwater trauma (UWT), predator exposure (PE), or control procedural handling conditions. Over the next 7 days, yoked cohorts underwent either serial blood sampling for neuroendocrine evaluation across the circadian cycle, or repeated behavioral testing in the elevated plus maze. In addition, a subset of brains from the latter cohort were assessed for dendritic spine changes in the prefrontal cortex and basolateral amygdala. We observed stressor-dependent patterns of response and recovery across all measures, with divergence between endocrine responses despite similar behavioral outcomes. These results demonstrate that different stressors elicit unique behavioral, neuroendocrine, and neuro-structural response profiles and suggest that specific stress models can be used to model desired responses for specific preclinical applications, such as evaluations of underlying mechanisms or therapeutic candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin D Cravedi
- Performance Assessment and Chemical Evaluation (PACE) Laboratory, Behavioral Biology Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Matthew D May
- Performance Assessment and Chemical Evaluation (PACE) Laboratory, Behavioral Biology Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Jordan A Abettan
- Laboratory of Neuroanatomy and Behavior, Department of Psychology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Kylie A Huckleberry
- Laboratory of Neuroanatomy and Behavior, Department of Psychology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Sean G Trettel
- Laboratory of Neuroanatomy and Behavior, Department of Psychology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Chau V Vuong
- Drug Metabolism and Distribution Laboratory, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Daniel E Altman
- Performance Assessment and Chemical Evaluation (PACE) Laboratory, Behavioral Biology Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Sangeeta Gauchan
- Performance Assessment and Chemical Evaluation (PACE) Laboratory, Behavioral Biology Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Rebecca M Shansky
- Laboratory of Neuroanatomy and Behavior, Department of Psychology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Liana M Matson
- Performance Assessment and Chemical Evaluation (PACE) Laboratory, Behavioral Biology Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Jason C Sousa
- Drug Metabolism and Distribution Laboratory, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | - Emily G Lowery-Gionta
- Performance Assessment and Chemical Evaluation (PACE) Laboratory, Behavioral Biology Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA.
| | - Nicole L T Moore
- Performance Assessment and Chemical Evaluation (PACE) Laboratory, Behavioral Biology Branch, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA; US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010, USA
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Rahimi S, Ragerdikashani M, Beheshti F, Baghishani F, Hosseini M, Saeedi N, Mirdoosti M, Negah SS. Alteration of the neurogenesis and long term potential of olfactory bulb in an animal model of PTSD. Acta Neurobiol Exp (Wars) 2020. [DOI: 10.21307/ane-2020-030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Schrader AJ, Taylor RM, Lowery-Gionta EG, Moore NLT. Repeated elevated plus maze trials as a measure for tracking within-subjects behavioral performance in rats (Rattus norvegicus). PLoS One 2018; 13:e0207804. [PMID: 30475877 PMCID: PMC6257936 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0207804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The elevated plus maze (EPM) is routinely used in neuroscience research to evaluate emotional behavior in rodents by measuring general exploratory performance and avoidance of the aversive open arms of the maze. According to standard practice, behavior on the EPM is evaluated during a single trial to avoid the possibility of habituation to the apparatus that would result in lost sensitivity of key outcome measures. However, this possibility has not been systematically evaluated across repeated trials or across different environmental conditions. In the current study, we assessed within-subject behavior on the EPM in adult male rats over thirteen trials (tested twice weekly) repeated under identical conditions. We also assessed within-subject behavior on the EPM in adult male rats under dim (1 lux in the closed arm) and lit (246 lux in the closed arm) environmental conditions. We found that measures of general performance (basic movements and total distanced travelled throughout the maze) were stable across repeated trials and environmental conditions. We found that measures of open arm avoidance (distance travelled in, time spent in and entries in to the open arm) varied across trials and environmental conditions and were sensitive to the lighting conditions of the initial test. Though measures of open arm avoidance did show a linear trend indicative of habituation across repeated trials, this effect was variable across trials. Notably, preference for the open arm over the closed arm (measured as % of time spent in the open arm) assessed among individual animals occurred rarely and was never observed on the group level across the thirteen repeated trials. Together, these data demonstrate that measures of general performance such as basic movements and total distance traveled are robust to repeated testing and changing environmental lighting conditions. In contrast, measures of open arm avoidance show habituation with repeated testing and are sensitive to changing environmental lighting conditions. Based on these results, we suggest that within-subjects repeated testing on the EPM is valid in well-controlled studies that include an untreated control group to account for inter-trial variability and habituation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J. Schrader
- Veterinary Services Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD
- Performance Assessment and Chemical Evaluation (PACE) Laboratory, Department of Behavioral Biology, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD
| | - Rachel M. Taylor
- Performance Assessment and Chemical Evaluation (PACE) Laboratory, Department of Behavioral Biology, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD
| | - Emily G. Lowery-Gionta
- Performance Assessment and Chemical Evaluation (PACE) Laboratory, Department of Behavioral Biology, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD
- * E-mail: ,
| | - Nicole L. T. Moore
- Performance Assessment and Chemical Evaluation (PACE) Laboratory, Department of Behavioral Biology, Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD
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Altman DE, Simmons LP, Vuong CT, Taylor RM, Sousa JC, Marcsisin SR, Zottig VE, Moore NLT. Developmental differences in stress responding after repeated underwater trauma exposures in rats. Stress 2018; 21:267-273. [PMID: 29451058 DOI: 10.1080/10253890.2018.1439012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Adolescence is a distinct developmental period characterized by behavioral and physiological maturation. Rapid ongoing changes during neurodevelopment in particular present potential opportunities for stress to have lasting effects on longitudinal outcomes of behavioral and neuroendocrine function. While adult stress effects on outcomes during adulthood have been characterized, little is known about the lasting effects of adolescent repeated stressor exposure on outcomes during adolescence. We have previously reported different stress responses in adolescent rats relative to adult rats, including a blunted fear response outcome in adulthood in rats stressed during adolescence. The present study characterized the ontogeny of behavioral and neuroendocrine responses to eight underwater trauma (UWT) exposures in rats over a two week poststress time period during adolescence (P34) or adulthood (P83) relative to age-matched control groups that underwent eight swimming episodes without UWT. Repeated UWT exposures starting in adolescence, but not adulthood, resulted in adverse behavioral responses on the elevated plus maze 1 day post-stress. Corticosterone responses did not differ between UWT-exposed and controls for either age group at 1 day or at 7 days poststress, although there was an effect of age on corticosterone levels. We conclude that repeated UWT stress events have a lasting, negative behavioral effect on adolescent rats that is not observed in adult rats after the two-week exposure window. These results suggest that neurophysiological mechanisms underlying recovery from a repeated stressor are immature in adolescence relative to adulthood in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel E Altman
- a Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Department of Behavioral Biology , Walter Reed Army Institute of Research , Silver Spring , MD , USA
| | - Laurence P Simmons
- a Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Department of Behavioral Biology , Walter Reed Army Institute of Research , Silver Spring , MD , USA
| | - Chau T Vuong
- b Division of Experimental Therapeutics, Drug Metabolism and Distribution Branch , Walter Reed Army Institute of Research , Silver Spring , MD , USA
| | - Rachel M Taylor
- a Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Department of Behavioral Biology , Walter Reed Army Institute of Research , Silver Spring , MD , USA
| | - Jason C Sousa
- b Division of Experimental Therapeutics, Drug Metabolism and Distribution Branch , Walter Reed Army Institute of Research , Silver Spring , MD , USA
| | - Sean R Marcsisin
- b Division of Experimental Therapeutics, Drug Metabolism and Distribution Branch , Walter Reed Army Institute of Research , Silver Spring , MD , USA
| | - Victor E Zottig
- b Division of Experimental Therapeutics, Drug Metabolism and Distribution Branch , Walter Reed Army Institute of Research , Silver Spring , MD , USA
| | - Nicole L T Moore
- a Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Department of Behavioral Biology , Walter Reed Army Institute of Research , Silver Spring , MD , USA
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Genovese RF, Dobre S. Mitigation of adverse behavioral impact from predator exposure by the nociceptin/orphanin FQ peptide antagonist J-113397 in rats. Behav Pharmacol 2017; 28:521-530. [PMID: 28704271 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The nociceptin/orphanin FQ peptide (NOP) receptor is believed to have an integral modulatory function in the stress response system. We evaluated the highly selective NOP antagonist J-113397 (7.5 and 20.0 mg/kg), using a predator exposure in which rats were exposed to predator cats as a stressor. A single dose of J-113397 or vehicle was administered (intraperitoneally) shortly before exposure to the predators or a sham exposure. Behavioral impact was measured using elevated plus maze (EPM), open field activity (OFA), and an olfactory discrimination (OD). The predator exposure produced a relatively long-lasting deficit (decreased time in open arms, decreased basic activity) on the EPM while having little effect on performance on the OFA or OD. J-113397 mitigated the performance deficits on the EPM in a dose-dependent manner while having little effect on performance on the OFA or OD. The largest dose of J-113397, administered with a sham exposure, was essentially devoid of effects on the EPM, OFA, and OD. These results demonstrate that J-113397 can significantly and selectively mitigate the effects of a stressor typically used in a preclinical model of post-traumatic stress disorder. Furthermore, these results are consistent with and extend previous results showing that the NOP receptor has an important role in the response to stress and that NOP antagonism may, potentially, have therapeutic benefit in stress disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymond F Genovese
- Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
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Moore NLT, Altman DE, Gauchan S, Genovese RF. Adulthood stress responses in rats are variably altered as a factor of adolescent stress exposure. Stress 2016; 19:295-302. [PMID: 27295201 DOI: 10.1080/10253890.2016.1191465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Stress exposure during development may influence adulthood stress response severity. The present study investigates persisting effects of two adolescent stressors upon adulthood response to predator exposure (PE). Rats were exposed to underwater trauma (UWT) or PE during adolescence, then to PE after reaching adulthood. Rats were then exposed to predator odor (PO) to test responses to predator cues alone. Behavioral and neuroendocrine assessments were conducted to determine acute effects of each stress experience. Adolescent stress altered behavioral response to adulthood PE. Acoustic startle response was blunted. Bidirectional changes in plus maze exploration were revealed as a factor of adolescent stress type. Neuroendocrine response magnitude did not predict severity of adolescent or adult stress response, suggesting that different adolescent stress events may differentially alter developmental outcomes regardless of acute behavioral or neuroendocrine response. We report that exposure to two different stressors in adolescence may differentially affect stress response outcomes in adulthood. Acute response to an adolescent stressor may not be consistent across all stressors or all dependent measures, and may not predict alterations in developmental outcomes pertaining to adulthood stress exposure. Further studies are needed to characterize factors underlying long-term effects of a developmental stressor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole L T Moore
- a Military Psychiatry Branch , Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research , Silver Spring , MD , USA
| | - Daniel E Altman
- a Military Psychiatry Branch , Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research , Silver Spring , MD , USA
| | - Sangeeta Gauchan
- a Military Psychiatry Branch , Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research , Silver Spring , MD , USA
| | - Raymond F Genovese
- a Military Psychiatry Branch , Center for Military Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research , Silver Spring , MD , USA
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