Smooth muscle alpha-actinin interaction with smitin

A multiscale sliding filament model of lymphatic muscle pumping

The lymphatics maintain fluid balance by returning interstitial fluid to veins via contraction/compression of vessel segments with check valves. Disruption of lymphatic pumping can result in a condition called lymphedema with interstitial fluid accumulation. Lymphedema treatments are often ineffective, which is partially attributable to insufficient understanding of specialized lymphatic muscle lining the vessels. This muscle exhibits cardiac-like phasic contractions and smooth muscle-like tonic contractions to generate and regulate flow. To understand the relationship between this sub-cellular contractile machinery and organ-level pumping, we have developed a multiscale computational model of phasic and tonic contractions in lymphatic muscle and coupled it to a lymphangion pumping model. Our model uses the sliding filament model (Huxley in Prog Biophys Biophys Chem 7:255-318, 1957) and its adaptation for smooth muscle (Mijailovich in Biophys J 79(5):2667-2681, 2000). Multiple structural arrangements of contractile components and viscoelastic elements were trialed but only one provided physiologic results. We then coupled this model with our previous lumped parameter model of the lymphangion to relate results to experiments. We show that the model produces similar pressure, diameter, and flow tracings to experiments on rat mesenteric lymphatics. This model provides the first estimates of lymphatic muscle contraction energetics and the ability to assess the potential effects of sub-cellular level phenomena such as calcium oscillations on lymphangion outflow. The maximum efficiency value predicted (40%) is at the upper end of estimates for other muscle types. Spontaneous calcium oscillations during diastole were found to increase outflow up to approximately 50% in the range of frequencies and amplitudes tested.

An adapted particle swarm optimization algorithm as a model for exploring premyofibril formation

While the fundamental steps outlining myofibril formation share a similar scheme for different cell and species types, various granular details involved in the development of a functional contractile muscle are not well understood. Many studies of myofibrillogenesis focus on the protein interactions that are involved in myofibril maturation with the assumption that there is a fully formed premyofibril at the start of the process. However, there is little known regarding how the premyofibril is initially constructed. Fortunately, the protein α-actinin, which has been consistently identified throughout the maturation process, is found in premyofibrils as punctate aggregates known as z-bodies. We propose a theoretical model based on the particle swarm optimization algorithm that can explore how these α-actinin clusters form into the patterns observed experimentally. Our algorithm can produce different pattern configurations by manipulating specific parameters that can be related to α-actinin mobility and binding affinity. These patterns, which vary experimentally according to species and muscle cell type, speak to the versatility of α-actinin and demonstrate how its behavior may be altered through interactions with various regulatory, signaling, and metabolic proteins. The results of our simulations invite speculation that premyofibrils can be influenced toward developing different patterns by altering the behavior of individual α-actinin molecules, which may be linked to key differences present in different cell types.

Mechanics of Vascular Smooth Muscle

Vascular smooth muscle (VSM; see Table 1 for a list of abbreviations) is a heterogeneous biomaterial comprised of cells and extracellular matrix. By surrounding tubes of endothelial cells, VSM forms a regulated network, the vasculature, through which oxygenated blood supplies specialized organs, permitting the development of large multicellular organisms. VSM cells, the engine of the vasculature, house a set of regulated nanomotors that permit rapid stress-development, sustained stress-maintenance and vessel constriction. Viscoelastic materials within, surrounding and attached to VSM cells, comprised largely of polymeric proteins with complex mechanical characteristics, assist the engine with countering loads imposed by the heart pump, and with control of relengthening after constriction. The complexity of this smart material can be reduced by classical mechanical studies combined with circuit modeling using spring and dashpot elements. Evaluation of the mechanical characteristics of VSM requires a more complete understanding of the mechanics and regulation of its biochemical parts, and ultimately, an understanding of how these parts work together to form the machinery of the vascular tree. Current molecular studies provide detailed mechanical data about single polymeric molecules, revealing viscoelasticity and plasticity at the protein domain level, the unique biological slip-catch bond, and a regulated two-step actomyosin power stroke. At the tissue level, new insight into acutely dynamic stress-strain behavior reveals smooth muscle to exhibit adaptive plasticity. At its core, physiology aims to describe the complex interactions of molecular systems, clarifying structure-function relationships and regulation of biological machines. The intent of this review is to provide a comprehensive presentation of one biomachine, VSM.

A rising titan: TTN review and mutation update

The 364 exon TTN gene encodes titin (TTN), the largest known protein, which plays key structural, developmental, mechanical, and regulatory roles in cardiac and skeletal muscles. Prior to next-generation sequencing (NGS), routine analysis of the whole TTN gene was impossible due to its giant size and complexity. Thus, only a few TTN mutations had been reported and the general incidence and spectrum of titinopathies was significantly underestimated. In the last months, due to the widespread use of NGS, TTN is emerging as a major gene in human-inherited disease. So far, 127 TTN disease-causing mutations have been reported in patients with at least 10 different conditions, including isolated cardiomyopathies, purely skeletal muscle phenotypes, or infantile diseases affecting both types of striated muscles. However, the identification of TTN variants in virtually every individual from control populations, as well as the multiplicity of TTN isoforms and reference sequences used, stress the difficulties in assessing the relevance, inheritance, and correlation with the phenotype of TTN sequence changes. In this review, we provide the first comprehensive update of the TTN mutations reported and discuss their distribution, molecular mechanisms, associated phenotypes, transmission pattern, and phenotype-genotype correlations, alongside with their implications for basic research and for human health.

Finding the weakest link: exploring integrin-mediated mechanical molecular pathways

From the extracellular matrix to the cytoskeleton, a network of molecular links connects cells to their environment. Molecules in this network transmit and detect mechanical forces, which subsequently determine cell behavior and fate. Here, we reconstruct the mechanical pathway followed by these forces. From matrix proteins to actin through integrins and adaptor proteins, we review how forces affect the lifetime of bonds and stretch or alter the conformation of proteins, and how these mechanical changes are converted into biochemical signals in mechanotransduction events. We evaluate which of the proteins in the network can participate in mechanotransduction and which are simply responsible for transmitting forces in a dynamic network. Besides their individual properties, we also analyze how the mechanical responses of a protein are determined by their serial connections from the matrix to actin, their parallel connections in integrin clusters and by the rate at which force is applied to them. All these define mechanical molecular pathways in cells, which are emerging as key regulators of cell function alongside better studied biochemical pathways.

The Alström syndrome protein, ALMS1, interacts with α-actinin and components of the endosome recycling pathway

Alström syndrome (ALMS) is a progressive multi-systemic disorder characterized by cone-rod dystrophy, sensorineural hearing loss, childhood obesity, insulin resistance and cardiac, renal, and hepatic dysfunction. The gene responsible for Alström syndrome, ALMS1, is ubiquitously expressed and has multiple splice variants. The protein encoded by this gene has been implicated in ciliary function, cell cycle control, and intracellular transport. To gain better insight into the pathways through which ALMS1 functions, we carried out a yeast two hybrid (Y2H) screen in several mouse tissue libraries to identify ALMS1 interacting partners. The majority of proteins found to interact with the murine carboxy-terminal end (19/32) of ALMS1 were α-actinin isoforms. Interestingly, several of the identified ALMS1 interacting partners (α-actinin 1, α-actinin 4, myosin Vb, rad50 interacting 1 and huntingtin associated protein1A) have been previously associated with endosome recycling and/or centrosome function. We examined dermal fibroblasts from human subjects bearing a disruption in ALMS1 for defects in the endocytic pathway. Fibroblasts from these patients had a lower uptake of transferrin and reduced clearance of transferrin compared to controls. Antibodies directed against ALMS1 N- and C-terminal epitopes label centrosomes and endosomal structures at the cleavage furrow of dividing MDCK cells, respectively, suggesting isoform-specific cellular functions. Our results suggest a role for ALMS1 variants in the recycling endosome pathway and give us new insights into the pathogenesis of a subset of clinical phenotypes associated with ALMS.

Smooth muscle titin Zq domain interaction with the smooth muscle alpha-actinin central rod

Actin-myosin II filament-based contractile structures in striated muscle, smooth muscle, and nonmuscle cells contain the actin filament-cross-linking protein alpha-actinin. In striated muscle Z-disks, alpha-actinin interacts with N-terminal domains of titin to provide a structural linkage crucial for the integrity of the sarcomere. We previously discovered a long titin isoform, originally smitin, hereafter sm-titin, in smooth muscle and demonstrated that native sm-titin interacts with C-terminal EF hand region and central rod R2-R3 spectrin-like repeat region sites in alpha-actinin. Reverse transcription-PCR analysis of RNA from human adult smooth muscles and cultured rat smooth muscle cells and Western blot analysis with a domain-specific antibody presented here revealed that sm-titin contains the titin gene-encoded Zq domain that may bind to the alpha-actinin R2-R3 central rod domain as well as Z-repeat domains that bind to the EF hand region. We investigated whether the sm-titin Zq domain binds to alpha-actinin R2 and R3 spectrin repeat-like domain loops that lie in proximity with two-fold symmetry on the surface of the central rod. Mutations in alpha-actinin R2 and R3 domain loop residues decreased interaction with expressed sm-titin Zq domain in glutathione S-transferase pull-down and solid phase binding assays. Alanine mutation of a region of the Zq domain with high propensity for alpha-helix formation decreased apparent Zq domain dimer formation and decreased Zq interaction with the alpha-actinin R2-R3 region in surface plasmon resonance assays. We present a model in which two sm-titin Zq domains interact with each other and with the two R2-R3 sites in the alpha-actinin central rod.

Structure-function relations of the giant elastic protein titin in striated and smooth muscle cells

The striated muscle sarcomere contains, in addition to thin and thick filaments, a third myofilament comprised of titin. The extensible region of titin spans the I-band region of the sarcomere and develops passive force in stretched sarcomeres. This force positions the A-bands in the middle of the sarcomere, maintains sarcomere length homogeneity and, importantly, is responsible for myocardial passive tension that determines diastolic filling. Recent work suggests that smooth muscle expresses a truncated titin isoform with a short extensible region that is predicted to develop high passive force levels. Several mechanisms for tuning the titin-based passive tension have been discovered that involve alternative splicing as well as posttranslational modification, mechanisms that are at play both during normal muscle function as well as during disease.

Molecular identification and localization of cellular titin, a novel titin isoform in the fibroblast stress fiber

We previously discovered a large titin-like protein-c-titin-in chicken epithelial brush border and human blood platelet extracts that binds alpha-actinin and organizes arrays of myosin II bipolar filaments in vitro. RT-PCR analysis of total RNA from human megakaryoblastic (CHRF-288-11) and mouse fibroblast (3T3) nonmuscle cells reveal sequences identical to known titin gene exon sequences that encode parts of the Z-line, I-band, PEVK domain, A-band, and M-line regions of striated muscle titins. In the nonmuscle cells, these sequences are differentially spliced in patterns not reported for any striated muscle titin isoform. Rabbit polyclonal antibodies raised against expressed protein fragments encoded by the Z-repeat and kinase domain regions react with the c-titin band in Western blot analysis of platelet extracts and immunoprecipitate c-titin in whole platelet extracts. Immunofluorescent localization demonstrates that the majority of the c-titin colocalizes with alpha-actinin and actin in 3T3 and Indian Muntjac deer skin fibroblast stress fibers. Our results suggest that differential expression of titin gene exons in nonmuscle cells yields multiple novel isoforms of the protein c-titin that are associated with the actin stress fiber structures.

CARP: fishing for novel mechanisms of neovascularization

Gene expression profiling of mouse skin wounds has led to the discovery of numerous target genes that may have therapeutic or diagnostic value. Among these, cardiac ankyrin repeat protein (CARP, ankrd1) expression was markedly and persistently elevated in several cutaneous compartments. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge of CARP and its regulation in biological systems. In addition to its role as a nuclear transcription cofactor in many cell types including vascular endothelium, CARP is also a structural component of the sarcomere. CARP transcripts are prominent in cardiogenesis and muscle injury, and they are under complex regulation by cytokines, hypoxia, doxorubicin, and other forms of stress. CARP overexpression in wounds by adenoviral gene transfer leads to a high vascular density, and CARP exerts effects on endothelial behavior. The unusual cellular distribution and actions of CARP make it a novel candidate gene in tissue repair.

Expression of Distinct Classes of Titin Isoforms in Striated and Smooth Muscles by Alternative Splicing, and Their Conserved Interaction with Filamins

While the role of titin as a sarcomeric protein is well established, its potential functional role(s) in smooth muscles and non-muscle tissues are controversial. We used a titin exon array to search for which part(s) of the human titin transcriptional unit encompassing 363 exons is(are) expressed in non-striated muscle tissues. Expression profiling of adult smooth muscle tissues (aorta, bladder, carotid, stomach) identified alternatively spliced titin isoforms, encompassing 80 to about 100 exons. These exons code for parts of the titin Z-disk, I-band and A-band regions, allowing the truncated smooth muscle titin isoform to link Z-disks/dense bodies together with thick filaments. Consistent with the array data, Western blot studies detected the expression of approximately 1 MDa smooth muscle titin in adult smooth muscles, reacting with selected Z-disc, I-band, and A-band titin antibodies. Immunofluorescence with these antibodies located smooth muscle titin in the cytoplasm of cultured human aortic smooth muscle cells and in the tunica media of intact adult bovine aorta. Real time PCR studies suggested that smooth muscle titins are expressed from a promoter located 35 kb or more upstream of the transcription initiation site used for striated muscle titin, driving expression of a bi-cistronic mRNA, coding 5' for the anonymous gene FL39502, followed 3' by titin, respectively. Our work showed that smooth muscle and striated muscle titins share in their conserved amino-terminal regions binding sites for alpha-actinin and filamins: Yeast two-hybrid screens using Z2-Zis1 titin baits identified prey clones coding for alpha-actinin-1 and filamin-A from smooth muscle, and alpha-actinin-2/3, filamin-C, and nebulin from skeletal muscle cDNA libraries, respectively. This suggests that the titin Z2-Zis1 domain can link filamins and alpha-actinin together in the periphery of the Z-line/dense bodies in a fashion that is conserved in smooth and striated muscles.

Mechanotransduction involving multimodular proteins: converting force into biochemical signals

Cells can sense and transduce a broad range of mechanical forces into distinct sets of biochemical signals that ultimately regulate cellular processes, including adhesion, proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Deciphering at the nanoscale the design principles by which sensory elements are integrated into structural protein motifs whose conformations can be switched mechanically is crucial to understand the process of transduction of force into biochemical signals that are then integrated to regulate mechanoresponsive pathways. While the major focus in the search for mechanosensory units has been on membrane proteins such as ion channels, integrins, and associated cytoplasmic complexes, a multimodular design of tandem repeats of various structural motifs is ubiquitously found among extracellular matrix proteins, as well as cell adhesion molecules, and among many intracellular players that physically link transmembrane proteins to the contractile cytoskeleton. Single-molecule studies have revealed an unexpected richness of mechanosensory motifs, including force-regulated conformational changes of loop-exposed molecular recognition sites, intermediate states in the unraveling pathway that might either expose cryptic binding or phosphorylation sites, or regions that display enzymatic activity only when unmasked by force. Insights into mechanochemical signal conversion principles will also affect various technological fields, from biotechnology to tissue engineering and drug development.