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Dombroski JA, Hope JM, Sarna NS, King MR. Channeling the Force: Piezo1 Mechanotransduction in Cancer Metastasis. Cells 2021; 10:2815. [PMID: 34831037 PMCID: PMC8616475 DOI: 10.3390/cells10112815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Revised: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer metastasis is one of the leading causes of death worldwide, motivating research into identifying new methods of preventing cancer metastasis. Recently there has been increasing interest in understanding how cancer cells transduce mechanical forces into biochemical signals, as metastasis is a process that consists of a wide range of physical forces. For instance, the circulatory system through which disseminating cancer cells must transit is an environment characterized by variable fluid shear stress due to blood flow. Cancer cells and other cells can transduce physical stimuli into biochemical responses using the mechanosensitive ion channel Piezo1, which is activated by membrane deformations that occur when cells are exposed to physical forces. When active, Piezo1 opens, allowing for calcium flux into the cell. Calcium, as a ubiquitous second-messenger cation, is associated with many signaling pathways involved in cancer metastasis, such as angiogenesis, cell migration, intravasation, and proliferation. In this review, we discuss the roles of Piezo1 in each stage of cancer metastasis in addition to its roles in immune cell activation and cancer cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Michael R. King
- King Lab, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, 5824 Stevenson Center, Nashville, TN 37235, USA; (J.A.D.); (J.M.H.); (N.S.S.)
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2
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Gastrokine 2 Regulates the Antitumor Effect of JAK2/STAT3 Pathway in Gastric Cancer. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2021; 2021:1343808. [PMID: 34381519 PMCID: PMC8352702 DOI: 10.1155/2021/1343808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
GKN2 (gastrokine 2) mainly plays a regulatory role in gastric mucosal defense and cell protection mechanisms, and its role in gastric cancer has not been thoroughly elucidated. Immunohistochemistry was used to detect GKN2 and TFF1 expressions in 90 gastric cancer tissues, 48 neoplastic resection margins, and 22 normal gastric mucosa epithelia. It showed that the downregulation of GKN2 and TFF1 expressions in gastric cancer tissues was significantly different from that in adjacent normal gastric tissues and distal gastric mucosal tissues. Nevertheless, correlation analysis showed that GKN2 expression in gastric cancer tissues was independent of TFF1 expression. After overexpression of GKN2 was constructed in human gastric cancer cell line MKN28 with the Ad-GFP-GKN2 transfected, cell viability was measured by CCK-8 assay, and migration and invasion ability were analyzed by transwell migration assay and transwell invasion assay. It indicated that overexpression of GKN2 significantly reduced the viability of MKN28 and SGC7901 cells. Overexpression of GKN2 could also inhibit the migration and invasion ability in MKN28 and SGC7901 cells. In addition, upregulation of GKN2 can inactivate the JAK2/STAT3 pathway. Our data suggest that GKN2 and TFF1 play the antitumor role in gastric carcinoma, and TFF1 may not interact or cooperate with GKN2. GKN2 overexpression can inhibit the growth and metastasis by downregulating the JAK2/STAT3 pathway in gastric cancer cells.
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3
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Liu F, Wu H. Prognostic Value of Gastrokine-2 (GKN2) and Its Correlation with Tumor-Infiltrating Immune Cells in Lung Cancer and Gastric Cancers. J Inflamm Res 2020; 13:933-944. [PMID: 33235482 PMCID: PMC7678718 DOI: 10.2147/jir.s277353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background GKN2, as a secretory protein, is involved in the inflammation and immune modulation, and its aberrant expression is closely related to tumorigenesis. However, integrated studies on the value of GKN2 as a promising clinical biomarker and immunotherapy target in multiple tumors are still rare. Methodology Multiple online databases, including ONCOMINE, SEGreg, UALCAN, GEPIA, K-M Plotter, cBioPortal, MethSurv, CellMarker, and Timer, were applied to assess the clinical significance of GKN2 and its correlation with tumor-infiltrating immune cells in differentially expressed cancers. Results Several databases confirmed that GKN2 was significantly down-regulated in lung and gastric cancers compared that in normal samples. GKN2 was altered in 3%, 5%, and 4% of the LUAD, LUSC, and STAD samples, respectively. Hyper-methylation of GKN2 was found in LUAD and LUSC samples. For the clinical values of GKN2, we found that the low transcription level of GKN2 was associated with worse OS in lung cancer, and inferior FP and PPS in gastric cancer, and the relationships between GKN2 expression and clinical variables regarding OS/FP/PPS in lung and gastric cancers were assessed. Moreover, the prognostic value of the DNA methylation patterns of GKN2 in LUAD, LUSC, and STAD was identified. Furthermore, GKN2 expression was found to be significantly correlated with the infiltrating multiple tumor immune cells, and statistically significant differences in the correlation between GKN2 expression and multiple markers of neutrophils and macrophage polarization were observed in LUAD, LUSC, and STAD. Conclusion The study revealed the prognosis and risk factors for deterioration in patients with low expression of GKN2. GKN2 may be used as a valuable prognostic biomarker and therapeutic target in lung and gastric cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangteng Liu
- Department of Breast Surgery, The Third Hospital of Nanchang, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330009, People's Republic of China.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Munich, Munich 80336, Germany
| | - Hengyu Wu
- Department of Breast Surgery, The Third Hospital of Nanchang, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330009, People's Republic of China
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4
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Liu W, Li J, Zhang D, Chen B, Wang X, Zhang X, Xue L. Trefoil factor 1 and gastrokine 2 inhibit Helicobacter pylori-induced proliferation and inflammation in gastric cardia and distal carcinogenesis. Oncol Lett 2020; 20:318. [PMID: 33133254 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2020.12181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection has been associated with non-cardia adenocarcinoma in the stomach, while its role in gastric cardia adenocarcinoma (GCA) remains controversial. In addition, the association between H. pylori and the protective factors trefoil factor 1 (TFF1) and gastrokine 2 (GKN2) in gastroesophageal adenocarcinomas has not been fully investigated. Therefore, the mRNA and protein expression levels of TFF1 and GKN2 in GCA and distal gastric adenocarcinoma (DGA) were analyzed using quantitative PCR (qPCR) and immunohistochemistry, and the association with H. pylori infection was investigated. In addition, the effects of TFF1 and GKN2 overexpression on H. pylori-induced cells were investigated using western blot and reverse transcription-qPCR analysis. The comparative analysis of 16S rRNA-positive mRNA expression between GCA and DGA showed no statistically significant difference. However, the rate of the H. pylori vacuolating toxin A (VacA) genotype was significantly higher in GCA (49.2%) compared with that in DGA (26.9%; P<0.05). H. pylori infection downregulated the mRNA and protein expression levels of TFF1 and GKN2 in gastric tumor tissues, and the mRNA expression level of TFF1 and GKN2 was also markedly decreased in vitro. Furthermore, the cell proliferation varied in H. pylori total protein treatment group with the different doses. Notably, treatment with 20 µg/ml H. pylori total protein for 24 h resulted in the highest cellular proliferation rate. In addition, TFF1 and GKN2 overexpression inversely inhibited H. pylori-induced cell proliferation and upregulated NF-κB, tumor necrosis factor-α, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4 and IL-6. The results of the present study indicate that H. pylori, particularly the VacA+ strain, plays an important role in GCA pathogenesis in high-risk areas of China, while TFF1/GKN2 inhibits H. pylori-induced cell proliferation and inflammation in GCA and DGA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjing Liu
- Laboratory of Pathology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, P.R. China
| | - Jie Li
- Department of Hematology, Hebei General Hospital, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, P.R. China
| | - Di Zhang
- Laboratory of Pathology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, P.R. China
| | - Bao Chen
- Laboratory of Pathology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, P.R. China
| | - Xiaozi Wang
- Laboratory of Pathology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, P.R. China
| | - Xianghong Zhang
- Laboratory of Pathology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, P.R. China
| | - Liying Xue
- Laboratory of Pathology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050000, P.R. China
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5
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Chung Nien Chin S, O’Connor L, Scurr M, Busada JT, Graham AN, Alipour Talesh G, Tran CP, Sarkar S, Minamoto T, Giraud AS, Cidlowski JA, Sutton P, Menheniott TR. Coordinate expression loss of GKN1 and GKN2 in gastric cancer via impairment of a glucocorticoid-responsive enhancer. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2020; 319:G175-G188. [PMID: 32538140 PMCID: PMC9373792 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00019.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Gastrokines (GKNs) are anti-inflammatory proteins secreted by gastric epithelial (surface mucous and pit) cells, with their aberrant loss of expression causally linked to premalignant inflammation and gastric cancer (GC). Transcriptional mechanisms accounting for GKN expression loss have not been elucidated. Using human clinical cohorts, mouse transgenics, bioinformatics, and transfection/reporter assays, we report a novel mechanism of GKN gene transcriptional regulation and its impairment in GC. GKN1/GKN2 loss is highly coordinated, with both genes showing parallel downregulation during human and mouse GC development, suggesting joint transcriptional control. In BAC transgenic studies, we defined a 152-kb genomic region surrounding the human GKN1/GKN2 genes sufficient to direct their tissue- and lineage-restricted expression. A screen of the 152-kb region for candidate regulatory elements identified a DNase I hypersensitive site (CR2) located 4 kb upstream of the GKN1 gene. CR2 showed overlapping enrichment of enhancer-related histone marks (H3K27Ac), a consensus binding site (GRE) for the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), strong GR occupancy in ChIP-seq data sets and, critically, exhibited dexamethasone-sensitive enhancer activity in reporter assays. Strikingly, GR showed progressive expression loss, paralleling that of GKN1/2, in human and mouse GC, suggesting desensitized glucocorticoid signaling as a mechanism underlying GKN loss. Finally, mouse adrenalectomy studies revealed a critical role for endogenous glucocorticoids in sustaining correct expression (and anti-inflammatory restraint) of GKNs in vivo. Together, these data link the coordinate expression of GKNs to a glucocorticoid-responsive and likely shared transcriptional enhancer mechanism, with its compromised activation contributing to dual GKN loss during GC progression.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Gastrokine 2 (GKN2) is an anti-inflammatory protein produced by the gastric epithelium. GKN2 expression is progressively lost during gastric cancer (GC), which is believed to play a casual role in GC development. Here, we use bacterial artificial chromosome transgenic studies to identify a glucocorticoid-responsive enhancer element that likely governs expression of GKN1/GKN2, which, via parallel expression loss of the anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid receptor, reveals a novel mechanism to explain the loss of GKN2 during GC pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Louise O’Connor
- 1Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Michelle Scurr
- 1Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jonathan T. Busada
- 2Molecular Endocrinology Group, Signal Transduction Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - Alison N. Graham
- 1Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ghazal Alipour Talesh
- 1Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia,3Division of Translational and Clinical Oncology, Cancer Research Institute, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Chau P. Tran
- 1Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sohinee Sarkar
- 1Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Toshinari Minamoto
- 3Division of Translational and Clinical Oncology, Cancer Research Institute, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Andrew S. Giraud
- 1Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia,4Department of Pediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - John A. Cidlowski
- 2Molecular Endocrinology Group, Signal Transduction Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - Philip Sutton
- 1Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia,4Department of Pediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Trevelyan R. Menheniott
- 1Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia,4Department of Pediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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6
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Braga Emidio N, Brierley SM, Schroeder CI, Muttenthaler M. Structure, Function, and Therapeutic Potential of the Trefoil Factor Family in the Gastrointestinal Tract. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2020; 3:583-597. [PMID: 32832864 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.0c00023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Trefoil factor family peptides (TFF1, TFF2, and TFF3) are key players in protecting, maintaining, and repairing the gastrointestinal tract. Accordingly, they have the therapeutic potential to treat and prevent a variety of gastrointestinal disorders associated with mucosal damage. TFF peptides share a conserved motif, including three disulfide bonds that stabilize a well-defined three-loop-structure reminiscent of a trefoil. Although multiple functions have been described for TFF peptides, their mechanisms at the molecular level remain poorly understood. This review presents the status quo of TFF research relating to gastrointestinal disorders. Putative TFF receptors and protein partners are described and critically evaluated. The therapeutic potential of these peptides in gastrointestinal disorders where altered mucosal biology plays a crucial role in the underlying etiology is discussed. Finally, areas of investigation that require further research are addressed. Thus, this review provides a comprehensive update on TFF literature as well as guidance toward future research to better understand this peptide family and its therapeutic potential for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nayara Braga Emidio
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Stuart M Brierley
- Visceral Pain Research Group, College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders Health and Medicial Research Insittitue (FHMRI), Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia 5042, Australia.,Hopwood Centre for Neurobiology, Lifelong Health Theme, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute (SAHMRI), North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia.,Discipline of Medicine, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia
| | - Christina I Schroeder
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia.,National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, Maryland 21702, United States
| | - Markus Muttenthaler
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria.,Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
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7
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Zhang Z, Xue H, Dong Y, Hu J, Jiang T, Shi L, Du J. Inhibition of GKN2 Attenuates Acute Gastric Lesions Through the NLRP3 Inflammasome. Adv Wound Care (New Rochelle) 2020; 9:219-232. [PMID: 32226647 DOI: 10.1089/wound.2019.0957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: Acute gastric lesions are commonly seen in critically ill patients in the intensive care unit and can result in significant upper gastrointestinal bleeding. However, the signaling mechanisms that regulate this severe disease are still unclear. In this study, we explored the involvement of gastrokine 2 (GKN2) in the development of acute gastric lesions in mice. Approach: We measured the degree of injury using the water immersion restraint stress mouse model. Inflammatory cells and factors were analyzed after gastric lesion induction. The luciferase reporter assay was used to detect the transcription activity of nuclear receptor subfamily 3 group C member 1 (NR3C1) in regulation of GKN2. We also detected the downstream pathway of GKN2 in gastric lesions. Results: The results showed that GKN2 could aggravate stress-induced gastric lesions and gastric mucosal cell death. Moreover, the gastric lesion promoted by GKN2 was gastric acid independent. GKN2 could recruit neutrophils and promote the release of inflammatory factors to contribute to inflammation. NR3C1, activated by cortisol under stress, could act as a transcription factor to upregulate the expression of GKN2. Innovation: This study elucidates the process of gastric lesion at a molecular level and explores the possible contender biomarkers for diagnosis and drug targets in wound healing of gastric lesions. Conclusion: In conclusion, GKN2, which was upregulated by cortisol, aggravated the gastric lesion through activation of the inflammasome and inflammatory reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziqiang Zhang
- Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital North, Fudan University, Shanghai, P.R. China
- Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Hongyuan Xue
- Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Yuanqiang Dong
- Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Jian Hu
- Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Tao Jiang
- Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Liubin Shi
- Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Jianjun Du
- Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, P.R. China
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8
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Znalesniak EB, Salm F, Hoffmann W. Molecular Alterations in the Stomach of Tff1-Deficient Mice: Early Steps in Antral Carcinogenesis. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21020644. [PMID: 31963721 PMCID: PMC7014203 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21020644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Revised: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
TFF1 is a peptide of the gastric mucosa co-secreted with the mucin MUC5AC. It plays a key role in gastric mucosal protection and repair. Tff1-deficient (Tff1KO) mice obligatorily develop antropyloric adenoma and about 30% progress to carcinomas. Thus, these mice represent a model for gastric tumorigenesis. Here, we compared the expression of selected genes in Tff1KO mice and the corresponding wild-type animals (RT-PCR analyses). Furthermore, we systematically investigated the different molecular forms of Tff1 and its heterodimer partner gastrokine-2 (Gkn2) in the stomach (Western blot analyses). As a hallmark, a large portion of murine Tff1 occurs in a monomeric form. This is unexpected because of its odd number of seven cysteine residues. Probably the three conserved acid amino acid residues (EEE) flanking the 7th cysteine residue allow monomeric secretion. As a consequence, the free thiol of monomeric Tff1 could have a protective scavenger function, e.g., for reactive oxygen/nitrogen species. Furthermore, a minor subset of Tff1 forms a disulfide-linked heterodimer with IgG Fc binding protein (Fcgbp). Of special note, in Tff1KO animals a homodimeric form of Gkn2 was observed. In addition, Tff1KO animals showed strongly reduced Tff2 transcript and protein levels, which might explain their increased sensitivity to Helicobacter pylori infection.
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9
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The Interaction of Helicobacter pylori with TFF1 and Its Role in Mediating the Tropism of the Bacteria Within the Stomach. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20184400. [PMID: 31500233 PMCID: PMC6769565 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20184400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Revised: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori colonises the human stomach and has tropism for the gastric mucin, MUC5AC. The majority of organisms live in the adherent mucus layer within their preferred location, close to the epithelial surface where the pH is near neutral. Trefoil factor 1 (TFF1) is a small trefoil protein co-expressed with the gastric mucin MUC5AC in surface foveolar cells and co-secreted with MUC5AC into gastric mucus. Helicobacter pylori binds with greater avidity to TFF1 dimer, which is present in gastric mucus, than to TFF1 monomer. Binding of H. pylori to TFF1 is mediated by the core oligosaccharide subunit of H. pylori lipopolysaccharide at pH 5.0–6.0. Treatment of H. pylori lipopolysaccharide with mannosidase or glucosidase inhibits its interaction with TFF1. Both TFF1 and H. pylori have a propensity for binding to mucins with terminal non-reducing α- or β-linked N-acetyl-d-glucosamine or α-(2,3) linked sialic acid or Gal-3-SO42−. These findings are strong evidence that TFF1 has carbohydrate-binding properties that may involve a conserved patch of aromatic hydrophobic residues on the surface of its trefoil domain. The pH-dependent lectin properties of TFF1 may serve to locate H. pylori deep in the gastric mucus layer close to the epithelium rather than at the epithelial surface. This restricted localisation could limit the interaction of H. pylori with epithelial cells and the subsequent host signalling events that promote inflammation.
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10
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Zhang Z, Xue H, Dong Y, Zhang J, Pan Y, Shi L, Xiong P, Zhu J, Li W, Zheng W, Liu J, Du J. GKN2 promotes oxidative stress-induced gastric cancer cell apoptosis via the Hsc70 pathway. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 2019; 38:338. [PMID: 31382983 PMCID: PMC6683576 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-019-1336-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The GKN2 is a secretory protein, whose levels decrease in gastric cancer. The present study aimed to investigate the expression, function and mechanism of action of GKN2 in gastric cancer. METHODS Molecular biology assays were performed to elucidate the function and underlying mechanisms of GKN2 in gastric cancer under stress-induced condition in vivo and in vitro. Clinical specimens were used to assess the correlation of GKN2 and prognosis. RESULTS We found that overexpression of GKN2 significantly enhanced apoptosis and growth arrest in vitro. GKN2 expression increased in gastric cancer cells exposed to hydrogen peroxide and promoted reactive oxygen species-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and resulted in increased cell apoptosis via inhibition of NF-κB signaling pathway and activation of JNK signaling pathway through the direct interaction of GKN2 with Hsc70. Trefoil factor 1 might contribute to the tumor suppressing effects of GKN2. MiR-216a downregulated GKN2 expression. GKN2 also inhibited xenograft tumor growth and was an independent and significant prognostic factor for patients with gastric cancer treated with oxaliplatin. CONCLUSIONS Taken together, our data indicate that GKN2 may increase sensitivity of GC cells to the drugs which increase ROS levels in tumors. Inhibition of the interaction between GKN2 and Hsc70 could attenuate the effects induced by GKN2. GKN2 overexpression could be used to determine the subgroup of patients to obtain the more favorable outcome of oxaliplatin treatment and may be used as biomarker of the prognosis of this cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziqiang Zhang
- Departments of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Urumqi Road, Shanghai, 200040 People’s Republic of China
| | - Hongyuan Xue
- Departments of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Urumqi Road, Shanghai, 200040 People’s Republic of China
| | - Yuanqiang Dong
- Departments of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Urumqi Road, Shanghai, 200040 People’s Republic of China
| | - Jun Zhang
- Departments of Digestive Diseases, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Urumqi Road, Shanghai, 200040 People’s Republic of China
| | - Yida Pan
- Departments of Digestive Diseases, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Urumqi Road, Shanghai, 200040 People’s Republic of China
| | - Liubin Shi
- Departments of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Urumqi Road, Shanghai, 200040 People’s Republic of China
| | - Panpan Xiong
- Departments of Digestive Diseases, Dongfang Hospital, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jie Zhu
- Departments of Digestive Diseases, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Urumqi Road, Shanghai, 200040 People’s Republic of China
| | - Wenshuai Li
- Departments of Digestive Diseases, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Urumqi Road, Shanghai, 200040 People’s Republic of China
| | - Wanwei Zheng
- Departments of Digestive Diseases, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Urumqi Road, Shanghai, 200040 People’s Republic of China
| | - Jie Liu
- Departments of Digestive Diseases, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Urumqi Road, Shanghai, 200040 People’s Republic of China
| | - Jianjun Du
- Departments of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, 12 Middle Urumqi Road, Shanghai, 200040 People’s Republic of China
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11
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Soutto M, Chen Z, Bhat AA, Wang L, Zhu S, Gomaa A, Bates A, Bhat NS, Peng D, Belkhiri A, Piazuelo MB, Washington MK, Steven XC, Peek R, El-Rifai W. Activation of STAT3 signaling is mediated by TFF1 silencing in gastric neoplasia. Nat Commun 2019; 10:3039. [PMID: 31292446 PMCID: PMC6620282 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-11011-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2017] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
TFF1, a secreted protein, plays an essential role in keeping the integrity of gastric mucosa and its barrier function. Loss of TFF1 expression in the TFF1-knockout (KO) mouse leads to a pro-inflammatory phenotype with a cascade of gastric lesions that include low-grade dysplasia, high-grade dysplasia, and adenocarcinomas. In this study, we demonstrate nuclear localization of p-STATY705, with significant overexpression of several STAT3 target genes in gastric glands from the TFF1-KO mice. We also show frequent loss of TFF1 with nuclear localization of STAT3 in human gastric cancers. The reconstitution of TFF1 protein in human gastric cancer cells and 3D gastric glands organoids from TFF1-KO mice abrogates IL6-induced nuclear p-STAT3Y705 expression. Reconstitution of TFF1 inhibits IL6-induced STAT3 transcription activity, suppressing expression of its target genes. TFF1 blocks IL6Rα-GP130 complex formation through interfering with binding of IL6 to its receptor IL6Rα. These findings demonstrate a functional role of TFF1 in suppressing gastric tumorigenesis by impeding the IL6-STAT3 pro-inflammatory signaling axis. Trefoil factor 1 (TFF1) is a protein secreted by the gastric mucosa that protects against gastric tumourigenesis. Here, the authors show that TFF1 inhibits the oncogenic inflammatory response and IL-6-mediated STAT3 activation by interfering with the binding of IL6 to its receptor IL6Rα.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Soutto
- Department of Veterans Affairs, Miami Healthcare System, Miami, FL, USA.,Department of Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Zheng Chen
- Department of Veterans Affairs, Miami Healthcare System, Miami, FL, USA.,Department of Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Ajaz A Bhat
- Department of Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA.,Division of Translational Medicine, Research Branch, Sidra Medicine, Doha, Qatar
| | - Lihong Wang
- Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Shoumin Zhu
- Department of Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Ahmed Gomaa
- Department of Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Andreia Bates
- Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Nadeem S Bhat
- Department of Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Dunfa Peng
- Department of Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Abbes Belkhiri
- Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - M Blanca Piazuelo
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - M Kay Washington
- Department of Pathology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Xi Chen Steven
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Division of Biostatistics, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Richard Peek
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Wael El-Rifai
- Department of Veterans Affairs, Miami Healthcare System, Miami, FL, USA. .,Department of Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA. .,Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA.
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Zhang Z, Zhu J, Dong Y, Xu H, Jiang T, Li W, Xu D, Shi L, Yu J, Zhang J, Du J. Global transcriptome‑wide analysis of the function of GDDR in acute gastric lesions. Mol Med Rep 2017; 16:8673-8684. [PMID: 28990076 PMCID: PMC5779945 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2017.7687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute gastric lesions induced by stress are frequent occurrences in medical establishments. The gastric dramatic downrelated gene (GDDR) is a secreted protein, which is abundantly expressed in normal gastric epithelia and is significantly decreased in gastric cancer. In our previous study, it was found that GDDR aggravated stress-induced acute gastric lesions. However, the role of GDDR in acute gastric lesions remains to be fully elucidated. In the present study, RNA sequencing was performed in order to examine the gene expression profile regulated by GDDR in acute gastric lesions. The dataset comprised four stomach samples from wild-type (WT) mice and four stomach samples from GDDR-knockout mice. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses were performed to analyze the differentially-expressed genes (DEGs). Weighted correlation network analysis was used to identify clusters of highly correlated genes. Cytoscape was used to construct a protein-protein interaction network (PPI) of the DEGs. Based on the GO analysis, the upregulated DEGs were distinctly enriched in muscle contraction and response to wounding; and the downregulated DEGs were significantly enriched in the regulation of nitrogen compound metabolic process and regulation of RNA metabolic process. The results of the KEGG pathway analysis showed that the upregulated DEGs were enriched in ECM-receptor interaction and the signaling pathway of cGMP-PKG, and the downregulated DEGs were enriched in the renin-angiotensin system and glycerolipid metabolism. The co-expression network revealed a group of genes, which were associated with increased wound healing in the WT mice. Significant pathways were identified through the PPI network, including negative regulation of the signaling pathway of glucocorticoid receptor, regulation of cellular stress response, and regulation of hormone secretion. In conclusion, the present study improves current understanding of the molecular mechanism underlying acute gastric lesions and may assist in the treatment of gastric lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziqiang Zhang
- Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, P.R. China
| | - Jie Zhu
- Department of Digestive Diseases, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, P.R. China
| | - Yuanqiang Dong
- Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, P.R. China
| | - Hongyuan Xu
- Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, P.R. China
| | - Tao Jiang
- Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, P.R. China
| | - Wenshuai Li
- Department of Digestive Diseases, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, P.R. China
| | - Diannan Xu
- Department of Digestive Diseases, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, P.R. China
| | - Liubin Shi
- Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, P.R. China
| | - Jianghong Yu
- Department of Digestive Diseases, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, P.R. China
| | - Jun Zhang
- Department of Digestive Diseases, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, P.R. China
| | - Jianjun Du
- Department of General Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, P.R. China
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Heterodimeric interaction between GKN2 and TFF1 entails synergistic antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic effects on gastric cancer cells. Gastric Cancer 2017; 20:772-783. [PMID: 28150071 PMCID: PMC5718056 DOI: 10.1007/s10120-017-0692-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2016] [Accepted: 01/14/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND GKN2 and TFF1 form a heterodimer that is only generated in the mucus-secreting cells of the normal stomach. The formation of this heterodimer is frequently disrupted in gastric cancer. However, the precise roles of GKN2 alone and in the heterodimer with TFF1 as well as the contributions of GKN2 and the heterodimer to gastric carcinogenesis are poorly understood. METHODS Cell viability, proliferation, and apoptosis were analyzed in AGS, MKN1, MKN28, and MKN45 gastric cancer cells transfected with GKN2 and/or TFF1 using MTT, BrdU incorporation, and apoptosis assays, respectively. In addition, cell viability was examined in HFE-145 non-neoplastic gastric epithelial cells after GKN2 and/or TFF1 silencing. Furthermore, the cell cycle and the expression of cell cycle and apoptosis related proteins were assessed. The interaction between GKN2 and TFF1 was confirmed by co-immunoprecipitation. Immunohistochemistry was employed to explore TFF1 expression in 169 gastric cancer tissues. RESULTS Co-transfection with GKN2 and TFF1 significantly inhibited cell viability and proliferation by inducing G1/S cell cycle arrest and suppressing positive cell cycle regulators. Simultaneous knockdown of GKN2 and TFF1 in HFE-145 cells resulted in markedly increased cell viability. Moreover, the interaction of GKN2 and TFF1 promoted cell death by enhancing caspase-3/7 activity and upregulating pro-apoptotic proteins. At the mRNA level, GKN2 and TFF1 were found to be positively correlated in non-tumor and tumor samples. Immunohistochemistry revealed loss of TFF1 expression in 128 (75.73%) of 169 gastric cancers. There was a borderline-significant association between GKN2 and TFF1 protein expression in gastric cancers (P = 0.0598). CONCLUSION Collectively, our data demonstrated that the interaction between GKN2 and TFF1 can have synergistic antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic effects on gastric cancer.
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Gastrointestinal Factor GDDR Attenuates Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition in Gastric Cancer via Inhibiting AKT Signal. Dig Dis Sci 2016; 61:1941-9. [PMID: 27017226 DOI: 10.1007/s10620-016-4115-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2015] [Accepted: 03/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The gastric dramatic down-related gene (GDDR) is an abundantly expressed secretory protein in normal gastric epithelia, while its expression is distinctly decreased in gastric cancer. However, the role of GDDR in gastric cancer remains poorly understood. AIMS This study aims to detect the expression and clinical significance of GDDR in gastric cancer and investigate its effects on epithelial-mesenchymal transition. METHODS The expression of GDDR in gastric cancer was examined by immunohistochemistry, immunoblotting, and Western blotting. The relationships between GDDR expression and clinicopathological factors were evaluated. The effects of GDDR on epithelial-mesenchymal transition of gastric cancer cells were investigated in vitro. RESULTS GDDR was absent in gastric cancer tissue or dramatically downregulated in gastric cancer cell lines. Loss of GDDR expression in gastric cancer was strongly correlated with clinicopathological factors, such as tumor differentiation (p = 0.037), T stage (p < 0.001), lymph node metastasis (p = 0.008) and TNM stage (p < 0.001). Patients with decreased GDDR expression presented shortened overall survival (p = 0.033). Functional studies demonstrated that GDDR elevation augmented cell-cell adhesion and suppressed cell motility, concomitant with increased expression of E-cadherin and decreased expression of β-catenin and vimentin. Conversely, GDDR depletion increased cell motility, concomitant with decreased expression of E-cadherin and increased expression of β-catenin and vimentin. Moreover, GDDR had an inhibitory effect on PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggested that GDDR expression was significantly associated with the progression of gastric cancer and GDDR may function as a tumor suppressor via inhibiting the epithelial-mesenchymal transition.
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Menheniott TR, O'Connor L, Chionh YT, Däbritz J, Scurr M, Rollo BN, Ng GZ, Jacobs S, Catubig A, Kurklu B, Mercer S, Minamoto T, Ong DE, Ferrero RL, Fox JG, Wang TC, Sutton P, Judd LM, Giraud AS. Loss of gastrokine-2 drives premalignant gastric inflammation and tumor progression. J Clin Invest 2016; 126:1383-400. [PMID: 26974160 DOI: 10.1172/jci82655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2015] [Accepted: 02/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic mucosal inflammation is associated with a greater risk of gastric cancer (GC) and, therefore, requires tight control by suppressive counter mechanisms. Gastrokine-2 (GKN2) belongs to a family of secreted proteins expressed within normal gastric mucosal cells. GKN2 expression is frequently lost during GC progression, suggesting an inhibitory role; however, a causal link remains unsubstantiated. Here, we developed Gkn2 knockout and transgenic overexpressing mice to investigate the functional impact of GKN2 loss in GC pathogenesis. In mouse models of GC, decreased GKN2 expression correlated with gastric pathology that paralleled human GC progression. At baseline, Gkn2 knockout mice exhibited defective gastric epithelial differentiation but not malignant progression. Conversely, Gkn2 knockout in the IL-11/STAT3-dependent gp130F/F GC model caused tumorigenesis of the proximal stomach. Additionally, gastric immunopathology was accelerated in Helicobacter pylori-infected Gkn2 knockout mice and was associated with augmented T helper cell type 1 (Th1) but not Th17 immunity. Heightened Th1 responses in Gkn2 knockout mice were linked to deregulated mucosal innate immunity and impaired myeloid-derived suppressor cell activation. Finally, transgenic overexpression of human gastrokines (GKNs) attenuated gastric tumor growth in gp130F/F mice. Together, these results reveal an antiinflammatory role for GKN2, provide in vivo evidence that links GKN2 loss to GC pathogenesis, and suggest GKN restoration as a strategy to restrain GC progression.
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Xiao P, Ling H, Lan G, Liu J, Hu H, Yang R. Trefoil factors: Gastrointestinal-specific proteins associated with gastric cancer. Clin Chim Acta 2015; 450:127-34. [PMID: 26265233 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2015.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2015] [Revised: 08/07/2015] [Accepted: 08/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Trefoil factor family (TFF), composed of TFF1, TFF2, and TFF3, is a cluster of secreted peptides characterized by trefoil domain (s) and C-terminal dimerization domain. TFF1, a gastric tumor suppressor, is a single trefoil peptide originally detected in breast cancer cell lines but expressed mainly in the stomach; TFF2, a candidate of gastric cancer suppressor with two trefoil domains, is abundant in the stomach and duodenal Brunner's glands; and TFF3 is another single trefoil peptide expressed throughout the intestine which can promote the development of gastric carcinoma. According to multiple studies, TFFs play a regulatory function in the mammals' digestive system, namely in mucosal protection and epithelial cell reconstruction, tumor suppression or promotion, signal transduction and the regulation of proliferation and apoptosis. Action mechanisms of TFFs remain unresolved, but the recent demonstration of a GKN (gastrokine) 2-TFF1 heterodimer implicates structural and functional interplay with gastrokines. This review aims to encapsulate the structural and biological characteristics of TFF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Xiao
- Key Laboratory of Tumor Cellular and Molecular Pathology, University of South China, College of Hunan Province, Cancer Research Institute, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, PR China; Center for Gastric Cancer Research of Hunan Province, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, PR China
| | - Hui Ling
- Key Laboratory of Tumor Cellular and Molecular Pathology, University of South China, College of Hunan Province, Cancer Research Institute, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, PR China; Center for Gastric Cancer Research of Hunan Province, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, PR China.
| | - Gang Lan
- Key Laboratory for Atherosclerology of Hunan Province, Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, PR China
| | - Jiao Liu
- Key Laboratory of Tumor Cellular and Molecular Pathology, University of South China, College of Hunan Province, Cancer Research Institute, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, PR China; Center for Gastric Cancer Research of Hunan Province, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, PR China
| | - Haobin Hu
- Key Laboratory of Tumor Cellular and Molecular Pathology, University of South China, College of Hunan Province, Cancer Research Institute, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, PR China; Center for Gastric Cancer Research of Hunan Province, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, PR China
| | - Ruirui Yang
- Key Laboratory of Tumor Cellular and Molecular Pathology, University of South China, College of Hunan Province, Cancer Research Institute, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, PR China; Center for Gastric Cancer Research of Hunan Province, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, PR China
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Yang XN, Lu YP, Liu JJ, Huang JK, Liu YP, Xiao CX, Jazag A, Ren JL, Guleng B. Piezo1 is as a novel trefoil factor family 1 binding protein that promotes gastric cancer cell mobility in vitro. Dig Dis Sci 2014; 59:1428-35. [PMID: 24798994 DOI: 10.1007/s10620-014-3044-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2013] [Accepted: 01/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Trefoil factor family 1 (TFF1) is a member of the TFF-domain peptide family involved in epithelial restitution and cell motility. Recently, we screened Piezo1 as a candidate TFF1-binding protein. AIM We aimed to confirm Piezo1 as a novel TFF1 binding protein and to assess the role of this interaction in mediating gastric cancer cell mobility. METHODS This interaction was confirmed by co-immunoprecipitation and co-localisation of TFF1 and Piezo1 in GES-1 cells. We used stable RNA interference to knockdown Piezo1 protein expression and restored the expression of TFF1 in the gastric cancer cell lines SGC-7901 and BGC-823. Cell motility was evaluated using invasion assay and migration assay in vitro. The expression levels of the integrin subunits β1, β5, α1 as well as the expression of β-catenin and E-cadherin were detected by Western blot. RESULTS We demonstrate that TFF1, but not TFF2 or TFF3, bind to and co-localize with Piezo1 in the cytoplasm in vitro. TFF1 interacts with the C-terminal portion of the Piezo1 protein. Wound healing and trans-well assays demonstrated that the restored expression of TFF1 promoted cell mobility in gastric cancer cells, and this effect was attenuated by the knockdown of Piezo1. Western blots demonstrated the decreased expression of integrin β1 in Piezo1-knockdown cells. CONCLUSIONS Our data demonstrate that Piezo1 is a novel TFF1 binding protein that is important for TFF1-mediated cell migration and suggest that this interaction may be a therapeutic target in the invasion and metastasis of gastric cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Ning Yang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Zhongshan Hospital Affiliated to Xiamen University, 201 Hubin South Road, Xiamen, 361004, Fujian Province, China
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Kim O, Yoon JH, Choi WS, Ashktorab H, Smoot DT, Nam SW, Lee JY, Park WS. GKN2 contributes to the homeostasis of gastric mucosa by inhibiting GKN1 activity. J Cell Physiol 2014; 229:762-71. [PMID: 24151046 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.24496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2013] [Accepted: 10/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Gastrokine 1 (GKN1) plays an important role in maintaining gastric mucosa integrity. Here, we investigated whether gastrokine 2 (GKN2) contributes to the homeostasis of gastric epithelial cells by regulating GKN1 activity. We analyzed cell viability, proliferation, and death in AGS cells transfected with GKN1, GKN2, GKN1 plus GKN2 using MTT, BrdU incorporation, and apoptosis assays, respectively. In addition, the expression levels of the cell cycle- and apoptosis-related proteins, miR-185, DNMT1, and EZH2 were determined. We also compared the expression of GKN1, GKN2, and CagA in 50 non-neoplastic gastric mucosae and measured GKN2 expression in 169 gastric cancers by immunohistochemistry. GKN2 inhibited anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic activities, miR-185 induction, and anti-epigenetic modifications of GKN1. There was a positive correlation between GKN1 and GKN2 expression (P = 0.0074), and the expression of GKN1, but not GKN2, was significantly lower in Helicobacter pylori CagA-positive gastric mucosa (P = 0.0013). Interestingly, ectopic GKN1 expression in AGS cells increased GKN2 mRNA and protein expression in a time-dependent manner (P = 0.01). Loss of GKN2 expression was detected in 126 (74.6%) of 169 gastric cancers by immunohistochemical staining and was closely associated with GKN1 expression and differentiation of gastric cancer cells (P = 0.0002 and P = 0.0114, respectively). Overall, our data demonstrate that in the presence of GKN2, GKN1 loses its ability to decrease cell proliferation, induce apoptosis, and inhibit epigenetic alterations in gastric cancer cells. Thus, we conclude that GKN2 may contribute to the homeostasis of gastric epithelial cells by inhibiting GKN1 activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Kim
- Department of Pathology, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seocho-gu, Seoul, South Korea
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Dai J, Zhang N, Wang J, Chen M, Chen J. Gastrokine-2 is downregulated in gastric cancer and its restoration suppresses gastric tumorigenesis and cancer metastasis. Tumour Biol 2014; 35:4199-207. [DOI: 10.1007/s13277-013-1550-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2013] [Accepted: 12/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
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Activation of the NF-kB pathway downregulates TFF-1 in gastric carcinogenesis. Virchows Arch 2013; 463:497-507. [PMID: 23942618 DOI: 10.1007/s00428-013-1469-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2013] [Revised: 07/15/2013] [Accepted: 08/02/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Trefoil factor 1 (TFF1) is expressed in the normal superficial epithelium of the stomach and is implicated in the maintenance of gastric epithelial structure and function. During gastric carcinogenesis, in which pro-inflammatory cytokines play a crucial role, its expression level decreases suggesting a role as tumor suppressor factor. We have compared expression of TFF1 in gastric mucosa from cancer patients, in which several degrees of inflammatory infiltrate are present, with that in normal mucosa from non-cancer patients without infiltrating inflammatory cells. TFF1 is less expressed in the superficial gastric epithelium from cancer patients than in that from normal individuals in which the nuclear factor (NF)-κB pathway is not activated. We analyzed TFF1 expression in ex vivo samples of gastric mucosa from cancer patients, and in MKN45 gastric cancer cell line after exposure to proinflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β or tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, that activate the NF-κB pathway. We found that IL-1β and TNF-α activate the NF-κB pathway, as reflected in the nuclear expression of p65 and the activation of p-IκBα, and downregulate TFF1 expression after 1 or 2 h of exposure. Moreover, cells in the superficial gastric epithelium in ex vivo samples co-expressed TFF1/p65 at cellular level, whereas tumor cells did not. In summary, downregulation of TFF1 expression during gastric neoplastic transformation is associated with activation of the NF-κB pathway through IL-1β or TNF-α, but other regulatory mechanisms might also be involved.
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Uppal DS, Powell SM. Genetics/genomics/proteomics of gastric adenocarcinoma. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2013; 42:241-60. [PMID: 23639639 DOI: 10.1016/j.gtc.2013.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Hereditary diffuse gastric cancer can be caused by epithelial cadherin mutations for which genetic testing is available. Inherited cancer predisposition syndromes including Lynch, Li-Fraumeni, and Peutz-Jeghers syndromes, can be associated with gastric cancer. Chromosomal and microsatellite instability occur in gastric cancers. Several consistent genetic and molecular alterations including chromosomal instability, microsatellite instability, and epigenetic alterations have been identified in gastric cancers. Biomarkers and molecular profiles are being discovered with potential for diagnostic, prognostic, and treatment guidance implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dushant S Uppal
- Division of Gastroenterology/Hepatology, Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908-0708, USA
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22
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Menheniott TR, Kurklu B, Giraud AS. Gastrokines: stomach-specific proteins with putative homeostatic and tumor suppressor roles. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2013; 304:G109-21. [PMID: 23154977 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00374.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
During the past decade, a new family of stomach-specific proteins has been recognized. Known as "gastrokines" (GKNs), these secreted proteins are products of gastric mucus-producing cell lineages. GKNs are highly conserved in physical structure, and emerging data point to convergent functions in the modulation of gastric mucosal homeostasis and inflammation. While GKNs are highly prevalent in the normal stomach, frequent loss of GKN expression in gastric cancers, coupled with established antiproliferative activity, suggests putative tumor suppressor roles. Conversely, ectopic expression of GKNs in reparative lesions of Crohn's disease alludes to additional activity in epithelial wound healing and/or repair. Modes of action remain unsolved, but the recent demonstration of a GKN2-trefoil factor 1 heterodimer implicates functional interplay with trefoil factors. This review aims to provide a historical account of GKN biology and encapsulate the rapidly accumulating evidence supporting roles in gastric epithelial homeostasis and tumor suppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevelyan R Menheniott
- Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Royal Children's Hospital, Flemington Rd., Parkville, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia.
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23
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Bougen NM, Amiry N, Yuan Y, Kong XJ, Pandey V, Vidal LJP, Perry JK, Zhu T, Lobie PE. Trefoil factor 1 suppression of E-CADHERIN enhances prostate carcinoma cell invasiveness and metastasis. Cancer Lett 2012; 332:19-29. [PMID: 23266572 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2012.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2012] [Revised: 11/22/2012] [Accepted: 12/16/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Metastasis is the primary mediator of prostate cancer (PCA) lethality and poses a significant clinical obstacle. The identification of factors involved in the metastasis of PCA is imperative. We demonstrate herein that trefoil factor 1 (TFF1) promotes PCA cell migration and invasion in vitro and metastasis in vivo. The capacity of TFF1 to enhance cell migration/invasion is mediated by transcriptional repression of E-CADHERIN. Consideration of targeted inhibition of TFF1 to prevent metastasis of prostate carcinoma is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- N M Bougen
- Cancer Science Institute of Singapore, National University of Singapore, Singapore
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May FEB. The potential of trefoil proteins as biomarkers in human cancer. Biomark Med 2012; 6:301-4. [PMID: 22731904 DOI: 10.2217/bmm.12.22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
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Abstract
OBJECTIVES Trefoil factor family (TFF) peptides promote wound healing in the gut. Recent evidence has suggested that TFF3 may be a pancreatic mitogen, an unusual role for TFF peptides. We sought to clarify human pancreatic TFF and mucin expression and performed in vitro experiments to see how pancreatic cell lines respond to TFF3 in particular. METHODS Samples of normal and diseased pancreas (chronic pancreatitis, pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia, neuroendocrine tumors, and pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma [PDAC]) were studied by immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization. Pancreatic cell lines were challenged with TFF2 and TFF3 in wound and migration assays. RESULTS In normal islets, colocalization of insulin or glucagon with TFF3 was common. All TFF messenger RNAs were seen in ductal epithelium. Adenocarcinomas expressed all TFF messenger RNAs. Normal ducts were mucin free; MUC5AC was strongest in pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia and chronic pancreatitis but was reduced in PDAC. TFF2 induced Panc-1 migration and accelerated wound closure in Capan-2 and COLO-357. Double immunohistochemistry for insulin or TFF3 and Ki67 colabeled only very rare islet cells. TFF3-positive PDAC ducts showed some Ki67 colocalization. CONCLUSIONS No correlation between TFF3 or insulin and Ki67 was seen without ductal hyperplasia. TFF2 may assist pancreatic tumor cell movement, but TFF3 may not be a pancreatic mitogen.
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MAO WEI, CHEN JIE, PENG TIELI, YIN XIAOFEI, CHEN LIANZHOU, CHEN MINHU. Role of trefoil factor 1 in gastric cancer and relationship between trefoil factor 1 and gastrokine 1. Oncol Rep 2012; 28:1257-62. [DOI: 10.3892/or.2012.1939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2012] [Accepted: 06/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
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Ahmed ARH, Griffiths AB, Tilby MT, Westley BR, May FEB. TFF3 is a normal breast epithelial protein and is associated with differentiated phenotype in early breast cancer but predisposes to invasion and metastasis in advanced disease. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2012; 180:904-916. [PMID: 22341453 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2011.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2011] [Revised: 10/12/2011] [Accepted: 11/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The trefoil protein TFF3 stimulates invasion and angiogenesis in vitro. To determine whether it has a role in breast tumor metastasis and angiogenesis, its levels were measured by immunohistochemistry in breast tissue with a specific monoclonal antibody raised against human TFF3. TFF3 is expressed in normal breast lobules and ducts, at higher levels in areas of fibrocystic change and papillomas, in all benign breast disease lesions, and in 89% of in situ and in 83% of invasive carcinomas. In well-differentiated tumor cells, TFF3 is concentrated at the luminal edge, whereas in poorly differentiated cells polarity is inverted and expression is directed toward the stroma. Expression was high in well-differentiated tumors and was associated significantly with low histological grade and with estrogen and progesterone receptor expression, accordant with induction of TFF3 mRNA by estrogen in breast cancer cells. Paradoxically, TFF3 expression was associated with muscle, neural, and lymphovascular invasion and the presence and number of involved lymph nodes, and it was an independent predictive marker of lymphovascular invasion and lymph node involvement. Consistent with an angiogenic function, TFF3 expression correlated strongly with microvessel density evaluated with CD31 and CD34. In conclusion, TFF3 is expressed in both the normal and diseased breast. Although associated with features of good prognosis, its profile of expression in invasive cancer is consistent with a role in breast tumor progression and tumor cell dissemination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed R H Ahmed
- Northern Institute for Cancer Research, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Sohag University, Sohag, Egypt
| | - Andrew B Griffiths
- Breast Cancer Unit, Department of Surgery, Royal Victoria Infirmary, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Michael T Tilby
- Northern Institute for Cancer Research, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Bruce R Westley
- Northern Institute for Cancer Research, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; Department of Pathology, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Felicity E B May
- Northern Institute for Cancer Research, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; Department of Pathology, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom.
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Kam SY, Hennessy T, Chua SC, Gan CS, Philp R, Hon KK, Lai L, Chan WH, Ong HS, Wong WK, Lim KH, Ling KL, Tan HS, Tan MM, Ho M, Kon OL. Characterization of the human gastric fluid proteome reveals distinct pH-dependent protein profiles: implications for biomarker studies. J Proteome Res 2011; 10:4535-46. [PMID: 21842849 DOI: 10.1021/pr200349z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Gastric fluid is a source of gastric cancer biomarkers. However, very little is known about the normal gastric fluid proteome and its biological variations. In this study, we performed a comprehensive analysis of the human gastric fluid proteome using samples obtained from individuals with benign gastric conditions. Gastric fluid proteins were prefractionated using ultracentrifuge filters (3 kDa cutoff) and analyzed by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) and multidimensional LC-MS/MS. Our 2-DE analysis of 170 gastric fluid samples revealed distinct protein profiles for acidic and neutral samples, highlighting pH effects on protein composition. By 2D LC-MS/MS analysis of pooled samples, we identified 284 and 347 proteins in acidic and neutral samples respectively (FDR ≤1%), of which 265 proteins (72.4%) overlapped. However, unlike neutral samples, most proteins in acidic samples were identified from peptides in the filtrate (i.e., <3 kDa). Consistent with this finding, immunoblot analysis of six potential gastric cancer biomarkers rarely detected full-length proteins in acidic samples. These findings have important implications for biomarker studies because a majority of gastric cancer patients have neutral gastric fluid compared to noncancer controls. Consequently, sample stratification, choice of proteomic approaches, and validation strategy can profoundly affect the interpretation of biomarker findings. These observations should help to refine gastric fluid biomarker studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siok Yuen Kam
- Division of Medical Sciences, Humphrey Oei Institute of Cancer Research, National Cancer Centre , Singapore
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29
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Gastrointestinal tract specific gene GDDR inhibits the progression of gastric cancer in a TFF1 dependent manner. Mol Cell Biochem 2011; 359:369-74. [DOI: 10.1007/s11010-011-1030-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2011] [Accepted: 08/05/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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30
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Zhang F, Tang JM, Wang L, Shen JY, Zheng L, Wu PP, Zhang M, Yan ZW. Detection of β-catenin, gastrokine-2 and embryonic stem cell expressed ras in gastric cancers. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL PATHOLOGY 2010; 3:782-791. [PMID: 21151392 PMCID: PMC2993229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2010] [Accepted: 10/28/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED ERas activation and GKN2 reduction in gastric cancer has raised some notices in recent years, while nuclear beta-catenin positivity is considered as a tumoral marker. In this study, we compared immunohistochemistry of beta-catenin, GKN2 and ERas on tumoral and non-tumoral mucosae of 50 gastric carcinomas and 13 gastric samples of cancer-free patients. Nuclear positivity of beta-catenin was strong in 31 non-tumoral mucosae (62%) and 29 tumoral mucosae (58%). It was absent in samples of cancer-free patients. There was a correlation between non-tumoral and tumoral zones for nuclear beta-catenin positivity (P=0.013). ERas was positive in 35 non-tumoral tissues (70%) and 31 tumoral tissues (62%) but negatvie in samples of cancer-free patients. It was weak and spotty in non-tumoral mucosae but strong and diffuse in tumors. Positivity of ERas was age-related (P=0.028). However it had background staining effect. GKN2 was expressed in 33 non-tumoral mucosae (66%) and 35 tumoral mucosae (70%). Though GKN2 staining was moderate to strong in non-tumoral tissues and was comparatively weaker in tumors, their difference was minimal and difficult to discern. CONCLUSIONS Beta-catenin nuclear location could be considered as a paraneoplastic pattern which is considerably tumor-related. ERas may be a potential biomarker for gastric cancer, but advanced studies are wanted. GKN2 reduction is indiscernible by immunostaining.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fan Zhang
- Department of Pathology, Medical College, Shanghai Jiaotong University Shanghai, China
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31
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Tosco A, Monti MC, Fontanella B, Montefusco S, D’Andrea L, Ziaco B, Baldantoni D, Rio MC, Marzullo L. Copper binds the carboxy-terminus of trefoil protein 1 (TFF1), favoring its homodimerization and motogenic activity. Cell Mol Life Sci 2010; 67:1943-55. [PMID: 20213275 PMCID: PMC11115634 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-010-0309-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2009] [Revised: 01/29/2010] [Accepted: 02/09/2010] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Trefoil protein 1 (TFF1) is a small secreted protein belonging to the trefoil factor family of proteins, that are present mainly in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and play pivotal roles as motogenic factors in epithelial restitution, cell motility, and other incompletely characterized biological processes. We previously reported the up-regulation of TFF1 gene in copper deficient rats and the unexpected property of the peptide to selectively bind copper. Following the previous evidence, here we report the characterization of the copper binding site by fluorescence quenching spectroscopy and mass spectrometric analyses. We demonstrate that Cys58 and at least three Glu surrounding residues surrounding it, are essential to efficiently bind copper. Moreover, copper binding promotes the TFF1 homodimerization, thus increasing its motogenic activity in in vitro wound healing assays. Copper levels could then modulate the TFF1 functions in the GI tract, as well as its postulated role in cancer progression and invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Tosco
- Division of Biomedicine “Arturo Leone”, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Salerno, Via Ponte don Melillo, 84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy
| | - Maria Chiara Monti
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Technologies “Luigi Gomez-Paloma”, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Salerno, Via Ponte don Melillo, 84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy
| | - Bianca Fontanella
- Division of Biomedicine “Arturo Leone”, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Salerno, Via Ponte don Melillo, 84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy
| | - Sandro Montefusco
- Division of Biomedicine “Arturo Leone”, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Salerno, Via Ponte don Melillo, 84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy
| | - Luca D’Andrea
- Institute of Biostructures and Bioimaging, CNR, Naples, Italy
| | - Barbara Ziaco
- Institute of Biostructures and Bioimaging, CNR, Naples, Italy
| | | | - Marie-Christine Rio
- Department of Cancer Biology, Institute of Genetics and Molecular and Cellular Biology, CNRS UMR 7104, INSERM U964, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Liberato Marzullo
- Division of Biomedicine “Arturo Leone”, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Salerno, Via Ponte don Melillo, 84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy
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32
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Menheniott TR, Peterson AJ, O'Connor L, Lee KS, Kalantzis A, Kondova I, Bontrop RE, Bell KM, Giraud AS. A novel gastrokine, Gkn3, marks gastric atrophy and shows evidence of adaptive gene loss in humans. Gastroenterology 2010; 138:1823-35. [PMID: 20138039 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2010.01.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2009] [Revised: 01/19/2010] [Accepted: 01/27/2010] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Gastrokines are stomach mucus cell-secreted proteins; 2 gastrokines are known, GKN1 and GKN2. Gastrokine expression is lost in gastric cancer, indicating a possible function in tumor suppression. We have identified a third gastrokine gene in mammals. METHODS Gkn3 was characterized by studies of molecular structure, evolutionary conservation, and tissue expression as well as transcriptional/translational outcome in mouse genetic models of gastric pathology. The functional consequences of Gkn3 overexpression were evaluated in transfected cell lines. RESULTS Gkn3 encodes a secreted (approximately 19 kilodalton) protein that is co-expressed with trefoil factor (Tff)2 in the distal stomach and discriminates a Griffinia simplicifolia lectin (GS)-II-positive mucus neck cell (MNC) subpopulation in the proximal stomach. In humans, widespread homozygosity for a premature stop codon polymorphism, W59X, has likely rendered GKN3 non-functional. Population genetic analysis revealed an ancestral GKN3 read-through allele that predominates in Africans and indicates the rapid expansion of W59X among non-Africans during recent evolution. Mouse Gkn3 expression is strongly up-regulated in (Tff2-deficient) gastric atrophy, a pre-cancerous state that is typically associated with Helicobacter pylori and marks a non-proliferative, GS-II positive lineage with features of spasmolytic polypeptide-expressing metaplasia (SPEM). Gkn3 overexpression inhibits proliferation in gastric epithelial cell lines, independently of incubation with recombinant human TFF2 or apoptosis. CONCLUSIONS Gkn3 encodes a novel, functionally distinct gastrokine that is overexpressed and might restrain epithelial cell proliferation in gastric atrophy. Spread of the human GKN3 stop allele W59X might have been selected for among non-Africans because of its effects on pre-neoplastic outcomes in the stomach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevelyan R Menheniott
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Royal Children's Hospital, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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