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Lin H, Han R, Wu W. Glucans and applications in drug delivery. Carbohydr Polym 2024; 332:121904. [PMID: 38431411 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2024.121904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Revised: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
Glucan is a natural polysaccharide widely distributed in cereals and microorganisms that has various biological activities, including immunomodulatory, anti-infective, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor activities. In addition to wide applications in the broad fields of food, healthcare, and biomedicines, glucans hold promising potential as drug delivery carrier materials or ligands. Specifically, glucan microparticles or yeast cell wall particles are naturally enclosed vehicles with an interior cavity that can be exploited to carry and deliver drug payloads. The biological activities and targeting capacities of glucans depend largely on the recognition of glucan moieties by receptors such as dectin-1 and complement receptor 3, which are widely expressed on the cell membranes of mononuclear phagocytes, dendritic cells, neutrophils, and some lymphocytes. This review summarizes the chemical structures, sources, fundamental properties, extraction methods, and applications of these materials, with an emphasis on drug delivery. Glucans are utilized mainly as vaccine adjuvants, targeting ligands and as carrier materials for various drug entities. It is believed that glucans and glucan microparticles may be useful for the delivery of both small-molecule and macromolecular drugs, especially for potential treatment of immune-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hewei Lin
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery of MOE, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China.
| | - Rongze Han
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery of MOE, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China.
| | - Wei Wu
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery of MOE, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China; Shanghai Skin Disease Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200443, China; Center for Medical Research and Innovation, Shanghai Pudong Hospital, Fudan University Pudong Medical Center, Shanghai 201399, China; Fudan Zhangjiang Institute, Shanghai 201203, China.
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2
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LIU F, WEI Y, WANG Z. β-D-Glucan promotes NF-κB activation and ameliorates high-LET carbon-ion irradiation-induced human umbilical vein endothelial cell injury. Turk J Med Sci 2023; 53:1621-1634. [PMID: 38813508 PMCID: PMC10760591 DOI: 10.55730/1300-0144.5731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2024] Open
Abstract
Background/aim Heavy-ion irradiation seriously perturbs cellular homeostasis and thus damages cells. Vascular endothelial cells (ECs) play an important role in the pathological process of radiation damage. Protecting ECs from heavy-ion radiation is of great significance in the radioprotection of normal tissues. In this study, the radioprotective effect of β-D-glucan (BG) derived from Saccharomyces cerevisiae on human umbilical vein endothelial cell (EA.hy926) cytotoxicity produced by carbon-ion irradiation was examined and the probable mechanism was established. Materials and methods EA.hy926 cells were divided into seven groups: a control group; 1, 2, or 4 Gy radiation; and 10 μg/mL BG pretreatment for 24 h before 1, 2, or 4 Gy irradiation. Cell survival was assessed by colony formation assay. Cell cycles, apoptosis, DNA damage, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels were measured through flow cytometry. The level of malondialdehyde and antioxidant enzyme activities were analyzed using assay kits. The activation of NF-κB was analyzed using western blotting and a transcription factor assay kit. The expression of downstream target genes was detected by western blotting. Results BG pretreatment significantly increased the survival of irradiated cells, improved cell cycle progression, and decreased DNA damage and apoptosis. The levels of ROS and malondialdehyde were also decreased by BG. Further study indicated that BG increased the antioxidant enzyme activities, activated Src, and promoted NF-κB activation, especially for the p65, p50, and RelB subunits. The activated NF-κB upregulated the expression of antioxidant protein MnSOD, DNA damage-response and repair-related proteins BRCA2 and Hsp90α, and antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2. Conclusion Our results demonstrated that BG protects EA.hy926 cells from high linear-energy-transfer carbon-ion irradiation damage through the upregulation of prosurvival signaling triggered by the interaction of BG with its receptor. This confirms that BG is a promising radioprotective agent for heavy-ion exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang LIU
- International Genome Center, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, P.R.
China
- Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu, P.R.
China
| | - Yanting WEI
- Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu, P.R.
China
| | - Zhuanzi WANG
- Institute of Modern Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu, P.R.
China
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Roche V, Sandoval V, Wolford C, Senders Z, Kim JA, Ribeiro SP, Huang AY, Sekaly RP, Lyons J, Zhang M. Carbohydrate ligand engagement with CD11b enhances differentiation of tumor-associated myeloid cells for immunotherapy of solid cancers. J Immunother Cancer 2023; 11:e006205. [PMID: 37399354 DOI: 10.1136/jitc-2022-006205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Efforts to modulate the function of tumor-associated myeloid cell are underway to overcome the challenges in immunotherapy and find a cure. One potential therapeutic target is integrin CD11b, which can be used to modulate the myeloid-derived cells and induce tumor-reactive T-cell responses. However, CD11b can bind to multiple different ligands, leading to various myeloid cell functions such as adhesion, migration, phagocytosis, and proliferation. This has created a major challenge in understanding how CD11b converts the differences in the receptor-ligand binding into subsequent signaling responses and using this information for therapeutic development. METHODS This study aimed to investigate the antitumor effect of a carbohydrate ligand, named BG34-200, which modulates the CD11b+ cells. We have applied peptide microarrays, multiparameter FACS (fluorescence-activated cell analysis) analysis, cellular/molecular immunological technology, advanced microscopic imaging, and transgenic mouse models of solid cancers, to study the interaction between BG34-200 carbohydrate ligand and CD11b protein and the resulting immunological changes in the context of solid cancers, including osteosarcoma, advanced melanoma, and pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). RESULTS Our results show that BG34-200 can bind directly to the activated CD11b on its I (or A) domain, at previously unreported peptide residues, in a multisite and multivalent manner. This engagement significantly impacts the biological function of tumor-associated inflammatory monocytes (TAIMs) in osteosarcoma, advanced melanoma, and PDAC backgrounds. Importantly, we observed that the BG34-200-CD11b engagement triggered endocytosis of the binding complexes in TAIMs, which induced intracellular F-actin cytoskeletal rearrangement, effective phagocytosis, and intrinsic ICAM-1 (intercellular adhesion molecule I) clustering. These structural biological changes resulted in the differentiation in TAIMs into monocyte-derived dendritic cells, which play a crucial role in T-cell activation in the tumor microenvironment. CONCLUSIONS Our research has advanced the current understanding of the molecular basis of CD11b activation in solid cancers, revealing how it converts the differences in BG34 carbohydrate ligands into immune signaling responses. These findings could pave the way for the development of safe and novel BG34-200-based therapies that modulate myeloid-derived cell functions, thereby enhancing immunotherapy for solid cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronique Roche
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Victor Sandoval
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
- Department of Surgical Oncology, University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Claire Wolford
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Zachary Senders
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
- Department of Surgical Oncology, University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Julian Anthony Kim
- Department of Surgical Oncology, University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Susan Pereira Ribeiro
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Alex Yicheng Huang
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, UH Rainbow Babies & Children's Hospital, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Rafick-Pierre Sekaly
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Joshua Lyons
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
- Department of Surgical Oncology, University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Mei Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
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Singh RP, Bhardwaj A. β-glucans: a potential source for maintaining gut microbiota and the immune system. Front Nutr 2023; 10:1143682. [PMID: 37215217 PMCID: PMC10198134 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1143682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The human gastrointestinal (GI) tract holds a complex and dynamic population of microbial communities, which exerts a marked influence on the host physiology during homeostasis and disease conditions. Diet is considered one of the main factors in structuring the gut microbiota across a lifespan. Intestinal microbial communities play a vital role in sustaining immune and metabolic homeostasis as well as protecting against pathogens. The negatively altered gut bacterial composition has related to many inflammatory diseases and infections. β-glucans are a heterogeneous assemblage of glucose polymers with a typical structure comprising a leading chain of β-(1,4) and/or β-(1,3)-glucopyranosyl units with various branches and lengths as a side chain. β-glucans bind to specific receptors on immune cells and initiate immune responses. However, β-glucans from different sources differ in their structures, conformation, physical properties, and binding affinity to receptors. How these properties modulate biological functions in terms of molecular mechanisms is not known in many examples. This review provides a critical understanding of the structures of β-glucans and their functions for modulating the gut microbiota and immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravindra Pal Singh
- Department of Industrial Biotechnology, Gujarat Biotechnology University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
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BG34-200 Immunotherapy of Advanced Melanoma. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14235911. [PMID: 36497393 PMCID: PMC9736444 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14235911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
High levels of myeloid-derived cells are characteristic of the tumor microenvironment (TME) of advanced melanoma. These cells interact with tumor cells to suppress the development of antitumor immune responses, regulate tumor metastasis, and drive cancer's resistance to virtually all types of therapy. Therefore, methods to disrupt tumor-associated myeloid cell function are actively being sought to find a cure. Our team has recently developed a plant-derived carbohydrate molecule, BG34-200, that modulates tumor-associated myeloid cells by targeting the cell surface receptor CD11b. In this study, we found that BG34-200 IV administration could significantly inhibit tumor growth and improve survival in B16F10 mice with advanced melanoma. Our data supported a model that the entry of BG34-200 into circulating melanoma tumor-associated inflammatory monocytes (TAIMs) could trigger a sequential immune activation: the BG34-200+ TAIM subsets migrated to tumor and differentiated into monocyte-derived dendritic cells (mo-DCs); then, the BG34-200+ mo-DCs migrated to tumor draining lymph nodes, where they triggered the generation of tumor-antigen-specific T cells. Based upon these results, we combined BG34-200 treatment with adoptive transfer of TdLN-derived T cells to treat advanced melanoma, which significantly improved animal survival and helped tumor-free survivors be resistant to a second tumor-cell challenge. The scientific findings from this study will allow us to develop new technology and apply BG34-200-based immunotherapy to patients with advanced melanoma who have not responded to current standard of care therapies with and without immunotherapy.
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Hu N, Zhu L, Zhang L, Wang J, Wang Y, Luo J, He L, Hao Z, Zhang L. Immunomodulatory effect and safety of TNF-α RNAi mediated by oral yeast microcapsules in rheumatoid arthritis therapy. Mater Today Bio 2022; 16:100384. [PMID: 35991628 PMCID: PMC9386491 DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2022.100384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Revised: 07/16/2022] [Accepted: 07/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease that requires long-term treatment and monitoring. Inhibition of inflammatory gene expression by gene therapy is a significant breakthrough in RA treatment, but the lack of a safe and effective gene delivery system hinders its application. Since oral administration can significantly reduce wound infection caused by parenteral administration, it also has the advantages of high patient compliance and convenience. Therefore, oral administration may be the best option for the treatment of this chronic disease. In this study, we developed a novel oral drug system by delivering tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) short hairpin RNA (shRNA) mediated by non-pathogenic yeast to evaluate its regulation of systemic immune inflammation and safety in RA. Non-pathogenic yeast can resist the destruction of the gastrointestinal acid-base environment and can be recognized by the intestinal macrophages and act on systemic inflammatory lesions. Oral administration of yeast-mediated TNF-α shRNA significantly reduced the expression of TNF-α predominant pro-inflammatory factors in intestinal macrophages and joint synovium, and up-regulated the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 and M2 macrophages, systematically regulating the inflammatory response. This yeast-mediated oral gene delivery system can not only significantly inhibit knee joint synovial inflammation, but also has no toxic effects on peripheral blood and major organs. Therefore, yeast-mediated oral delivery of TNF-α shRNA may be used as a novel gene therapy strategy to treat RA through immunomodulating the mononuclear phagocyte system from the intestine to the joint synovium, and ultimately regulating systemic and local immune inflammation, providing new ideas for the clinical treatment of RA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Hu
- Department of Rheumatology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710061, China
| | - Li Zhu
- Department of Rheumatology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710061, China
| | - Li Zhang
- Xi'an Fifth Hospital, Shaanxi Provincial Hospital of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Xi'an, 710082, China
| | - Jing Wang
- Department of Rheumatology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710061, China
| | - Yanhua Wang
- Department of Rheumatology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710061, China
| | - Jing Luo
- Department of Rheumatology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710061, China
| | - Lan He
- Department of Rheumatology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710061, China
| | - Zhiming Hao
- Department of Rheumatology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710061, China
| | - Long Zhang
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710004, China
- Corresponding author.
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Su Y, Yang F, Chen L, Cheung PCK. Mushroom Carboxymethylated β-d-Glucan Functions as a Macrophage-Targeting Carrier for Iron Oxide Nanoparticles and an Inducer of Proinflammatory Macrophage Polarization for Immunotherapy. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2022; 70:7110-7121. [PMID: 35652418 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c01710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
β-d-glucans have the potential of serving as both macrophage-targeted carriers and immune stimulators via inducing trained immunity in macrophages. In this study, a carboxymethylated β-glucan from mushroom sclerotium of Pleurotus tuber-regium (CMPTR) was combined with iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) to form nanocomplexes (CMPTR/IONPs) with particle size around 193 ± 7 nm, which could exert a concerted effect on inducing proinflammatory M1 phenotype macrophages for immunotherapy. This nanocomplex exhibited good stability and low cytotoxicity (over 80% cellular viability of RAW 264.7 and THP-1) and higher cellular uptake by murine macrophages compared with B16F10 cells (p < 0.05). CMPTR/IONPs could convert M2-like bone marrow-derived macrophages into M1 phenotypes with upregulated expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL12 and TNF-α, p < 0.05) and reduced immune-suppressive cytokines (IL10 and TGF-β, p < 0.05). Such polarization was mediated by the combined signaling regulatory factors, including IONP-stimulated IRF5 and CMPTR-triggered TLRs-NF-κB pathways (p < 0.05). Accordingly, CMPTR could have a dual function as a macrophage-targeting carrier for IONPs and an immunostimulant to induce inflammatory M1 macrophage polarization for immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuting Su
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong 999077, China
| | - Fan Yang
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong 999077, China
| | - Lei Chen
- Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Peter C K Cheung
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong 999077, China
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Zheng Z, Tang W, Lu W, Mu X, Liu Y, Pan X, Wang K, Zhang Y. Metabolism and Biodegradation of β-Glucan in vivo. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:889586. [PMID: 35720856 PMCID: PMC9205209 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.889586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The β-Glucans widely exist in plants and edible fungi, and their diverse bioactivities and good physicochemical properties have been widely reported. In addition, β-glucan intravenous injections (such as lentinan and schizophyllan) have been clinically used as immunomodulators and antitumor polysaccharides. However, the pharmacokinetic studies of β-glucans only stay on the level of plasma concentration and biodistribution in vivo, and little is known about their metabolism and degradation in vivo, which severely limits the further application of β-glucans in the field of medicine and biomaterials. The aim of this paper is to explore the metabolism and degradation process of lentinan (as a representative of β-glucans) in vivo by labeling it with water-soluble fluorescein 5-([4, 6-Dichlorotriazin-2-yl]amino)fluorescein (DTAF). Fluorescently labeled lentinan (FLNT) was intravenously administered to rats at a single dose of 8 mg/kg. The degradation of LNT in blood, liver, kidney, and urine was evaluated by the gel permeation chromatography. Our results showed that although LNT could be degraded in blood, liver, kidney, and urine, there were still some prototypes until excreted in urine due to the incomplete degradation of LNT in each step. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report to comprehensively study LNT metabolic degradation in rats. These results provide an important reference for further exploration and application of LNT and other β-glucans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziming Zheng
- Department of Pharmacy, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Province Clinical Research Center for Precision Medicine for Critical Illness, Wuhan, China
| | - Wenqi Tang
- Department of Pharmacy, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Weipeng Lu
- Department of Pharmacy, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Xu Mu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Nature Medicinal Chemistry and Resource Evaluation, Tongji Medical College of Pharmacy, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Yuxuan Liu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Nature Medicinal Chemistry and Resource Evaluation, Tongji Medical College of Pharmacy, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Xianglin Pan
- Department of Pharmacy, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- Department of Pharmacy, The Central Hospital of Wuhan, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Kaiping Wang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Nature Medicinal Chemistry and Resource Evaluation, Tongji Medical College of Pharmacy, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- *Correspondence: Kaiping Wang
| | - Yu Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Province Clinical Research Center for Precision Medicine for Critical Illness, Wuhan, China
- Yu Zhang
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Zheng Z, Zhang Y, Liu Y, Wang J, Cui Z, Pan X, Liu Y, Tang W, Wang K. Metabolic degradation of lentinan in liver mediated by CYP450 enzymes and epoxide hydrolase. Carbohydr Polym 2021; 253:117255. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.117255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Revised: 10/11/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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10
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Su Y, Chen L, Yang F, Cheung PCK. Beta-d-glucan-based drug delivery system and its potential application in targeting tumor associated macrophages. Carbohydr Polym 2020; 253:117258. [PMID: 33278940 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.117258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Revised: 09/16/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Use of polysaccharides as carriers in drug delivery system is a hot topic, especially those with specific recognition of immune cells, enabling them to be applied in targeting delivery system. β-d-glucans are naturally occurring non-digestible polysaccharides with immunomodulatory activities that have attracted increasing attention to serve as therapeutic agents or immune-adjuvants. Being able to be specifically recognized by immune cells like macrophages, β-d-glucans can be developed as promising carriers for targeting delivery with stability, biocompatibility and specificity when applied in immunotherapy. Targeting tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) is an emerging strategy for cancer immunotherapy since it exerts anti-cancer effects based on modulating body immunity in tumor microenvironment (TME). This new strategy does not require high concentration of drugs to kill cancer cells directly and lessen tumor recurrence by creating unique immune memory for malignant cells. In this review, construction strategies of polysaccharide-based drug delivery system of three types of β-d-glucan including non-yeast and yeast β-d-glucans as well as hyper-branched β-d-glucan are discussed with reference to their branching characteristics and conformation. The applications of these β-d-glucans as nano-carrier for drug delivery targeting TAMs are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuting Su
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Lei Chen
- Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China.
| | - Fan Yang
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Peter C K Cheung
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong, China.
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Zins K, Abraham D. Cancer Immunotherapy: Targeting Tumor-Associated Macrophages by Gene Silencing. Methods Mol Biol 2020; 2115:289-325. [PMID: 32006408 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-0290-4_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are representing a major leukocyte population in solid tumors. Macrophages are very heterogeneous and plastic cells and can acquire distinct functional phenotypes ranging from antitumorigenic to immunosuppressive tumor-promoting M2-like TAMs, depending on the local tissue microenvironment (TME). TAMs express cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, and extracellular matrix (ECM) modifying factors, and the cross talk with the TME regulates pathways involved in the recruitment, polarization, and metabolism of TAMs during tumor progression. Due to their crucial role in tumor growth and metastasis, selective targeting of TAM for the treatment of cancer with therapeutic agents that promote phagocytosis or suppress survival, proliferation, trafficking, or polarization of TAMs may prove to be beneficial in cancer therapy. In this chapter, we will discuss TAM biology and current strategies for the targeting of TAMs using small interfering RNA (siRNA)-based drugs. In the past few years, advances in the field of nanomedicine pave the way for the development of siRNA-based drugs as an additional class of personalized cancer immuno-nanomedicines. Fundamental challenges associated with this group of therapeutics include the development process, delivery system, and clinical translation for siRNA-based drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Zins
- Division of Cell and Developmental Biology, Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Dietmar Abraham
- Division of Cell and Developmental Biology, Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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Lee HJ, Park J, Lee GJ, Oh JM, Kim TI. Polyethylenimine-functionalized cationic barley β-glucan derivatives for macrophage RAW264.7 cell-targeted gene delivery systems. Carbohydr Polym 2019; 226:115324. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2019.115324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Revised: 09/09/2019] [Accepted: 09/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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13
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Inhibition of tumor growth by β-glucans through promoting CD4+ T cell immunomodulation and neutrophil-killing in mice. Carbohydr Polym 2019; 213:370-381. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2019.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 02/26/2019] [Accepted: 03/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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14
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Zhang M, Kim JA, Huang AYC. Optimizing Tumor Microenvironment for Cancer Immunotherapy: β-Glucan-Based Nanoparticles. Front Immunol 2018; 9:341. [PMID: 29535722 PMCID: PMC5834761 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2017] [Accepted: 02/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy is revolutionizing cancer treatment. Recent clinical success with immune checkpoint inhibitors, chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy, and adoptive immune cellular therapies has generated excitement and new hopes for patients and investigators. However, clinically efficacious responses to cancer immunotherapy occur only in a minority of patients. One reason is the tumor microenvironment (TME), which potently inhibits the generation and delivery of optimal antitumor immune responses. As our understanding of TME continues to grow, strategies are being developed to change the TME toward one that augments the emergence of strong antitumor immunity. These strategies include eliminating tumor bulk to provoke the release of tumor antigens, using adjuvants to enhance antigen-presenting cell function, and employ agents that enhance immune cell effector activity. This article reviews the development of β-glucan and β-glucan-based nanoparticles as immune modulators of TME, as well as their potential benefit and future therapeutic applications. Cell-wall β-glucans from natural sources including plant, fungi, and bacteria are molecules that adopt pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) known to target specific receptors on immune cell subsets. Emerging data suggest that the TME can be actively manipulated by β-glucans and their related nanoparticles. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms of conditioning TME using β-glucan and β-glucan-based nanoparticles, and how this strategy enables future design of optimal combination cancer immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cleveland, OH, United States
- Seidman Cancer Center, University Hospitals, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Julian A. Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cleveland, OH, United States
- Seidman Cancer Center, University Hospitals, Cleveland, OH, United States
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Alex Yee-Chen Huang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cleveland, OH, United States
- Division of Pediatric Hematology-Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH, United States
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15
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Zhang M, Chun L, Sandoval V, Graor H, Myers J, Nthale J, Rauhe P, Senders Z, Choong K, Huang AY, Kim J. Systemic administration of β-glucan of 200 kDa modulates melanoma microenvironment and suppresses metastatic cancer. Oncoimmunology 2017; 7:e1387347. [PMID: 29308312 DOI: 10.1080/2162402x.2017.1387347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2017] [Revised: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 09/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Converting an immunosuppressive melanoma microenvironment into one that favors the induction of antitumor immunity is indispensable for effective cancer immunotherapy. In the current study we demonstrate that oat-derived β-(1-3)-(1-4)-glucan of 200 kDa molecular size (BG34-200) previously shown to mediate direct interaction with macrophages could alter the immune signature within melanoma microenvironment. Systemic administration of BG34-200 resulted in reversion of tolerant melanoma microenvironment to an immunogenic one that allows M1-type activation of macrophages, the induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines/chemokines including IFN-γ, TNF-α, CXCL9, and CXCL10, and enhanced IRF1 and PD-L1 expression. In turn, BG34-200 induced a superior antitumor response against primary and lung metastatic B16F10 melanoma compared to untreated controls. The enhanced tumor destruction was accompanied with significantly increased tumor infiltration of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells as well as elevated IFN-γ in the tumor sites. Systemic administration of BG34-200 also provoked systemic activation of tumor draining lymph node T cells that recognize antigens naturally expressing in melanoma (gp100/PMEL). Mechanistic studies using CD11b-knockout (KO), CD11 c-DTR transgenic mice and nude mice revealed that macrophages, DCs, T cells and NK cells were all required for the BG34-200-induced therapeutic benefit. Studies using IFN-γ-KO transgenic mice showed that IFN-γ was essential for the BG34-200-elicited antitumor response. Beyond melanoma, the therapeutic efficacy of BG34-200 and its immune stimulating activity were demonstrated in a mouse model of osteosarcoma. Together, BG34-200 is highly effective in modulating antitumor immunity. Our data support the potential therapeutic use of this novel immune modulator in the treatment of metastatic melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States.,Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Liane Chun
- School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Victor Sandoval
- Division of Surgical Oncology, University Hospitals, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Hallie Graor
- School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Jay Myers
- Division of Pediatric Hematology-Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Case Western Reserve University; Angie Fowler AYA Cancer Institute, UH Rainbow Babies & Children's Hospital, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Joseph Nthale
- Division of Pediatric Hematology-Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Case Western Reserve University; Angie Fowler AYA Cancer Institute, UH Rainbow Babies & Children's Hospital, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Peter Rauhe
- Division of Pediatric Hematology-Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Case Western Reserve University; Angie Fowler AYA Cancer Institute, UH Rainbow Babies & Children's Hospital, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Zachary Senders
- Division of Surgical Oncology, University Hospitals, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Kevin Choong
- Division of Surgical Oncology, University Hospitals, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Alex Y Huang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States.,Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cleveland, OH, United States.,Division of Pediatric Hematology-Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Case Western Reserve University; Angie Fowler AYA Cancer Institute, UH Rainbow Babies & Children's Hospital, Cleveland, OH, United States.,Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Julian Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States.,Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cleveland, OH, United States.,School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States.,Seidman Cancer Center, University Hospitals, Cleveland, OH, United States
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16
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Xu H, Zou S, Xu X. The β-glucan from Lentinus edodes suppresses cell proliferation and promotes apoptosis in estrogen receptor positive breast cancers. Oncotarget 2017; 8:86693-86709. [PMID: 29156828 PMCID: PMC5689718 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.21411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2016] [Accepted: 08/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer is now the most common cancer in worldwide women, and novel interventions are needed to overcome the resistance occurring in the estrogen-targeted endocrine therapy. Herein, we demonstrate that the β-glucan from Lentinus edodes (LNT) exhibited a profound inhibition ratio of ∼53% against estrogen receptor positive (ER+) MCF-7 tumor growth in nude mice similar to the positive control of cisplatin. Immunohistochemistry images showed that LNT evidently suppressed cell proliferation and promoted apoptosis in MCF-7 tumor tissues. The Western blotting analysis indicated that LNT up-regulated the tumor suppressor p53, phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase1/2 (p-ERK1/2), cleaved-Caspase 3 and poly [ADP (ribose)] polymerase 1 (PARP 1) protein levels, and reduced the expression of mouse double minute 2 (MDM2), telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) p65, B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), estrogen receptor α (ERα), etc. in tumor tissues. Moreover, LNT significantly suppressed phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), phosphorylated protein kinase B (p-Akt) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) protein levels. It was thus proposed that LNT inhibited MCF-7 tumor growth through suppressing cell proliferation and enhancing apoptosis possibly via multiple pathways such as PI3K/Akt/mTOR, NF-κB-, ERK-, ERα-, caspase- and p53-dependent pathways. Interestingly, the cell viability assay, siRNA transfection, Western blotting and flow cytometric analysis suggested that LNT targeted p53/ERα to only suppress cell proliferation via cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase without apoptosis in vitro. The big difference between in vivo and in vitro data suggested that the immune responses triggered by the polysaccharide should mainly contribute to the apoptotic effect in vivo. Overall, this work provides a novel strategy to treat ER+ breast cancers by using a naturally occurring β-glucan from mushrooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Xu
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Siwei Zou
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Xiaojuan Xu
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
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17
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A novel self-assembly Lentinan-tetraphenylethylene composite with strong blue fluorescence in water and its properties. Carbohydr Polym 2017; 174:13-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2017] [Revised: 06/01/2017] [Accepted: 06/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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18
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Binnemars-Postma K, Storm G, Prakash J. Nanomedicine Strategies to Target Tumor-Associated Macrophages. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:E979. [PMID: 28471401 PMCID: PMC5454892 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18050979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Revised: 04/25/2017] [Accepted: 05/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, the influence of the tumor microenvironment (TME) on cancer progression has been better understood. Macrophages, one of the most important cell types in the TME, exist in different subtypes, each of which has a different function. While classically activated M1 macrophages are involved in inflammatory and malignant processes, activated M2 macrophages are more involved in the wound-healing processes occurring in tumors. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) display M2 macrophage characteristics and support tumor growth and metastasis by matrix remodeling, neo-angiogenesis, and suppressing local immunity. Due to their detrimental role in tumor growth and metastasis, selective targeting of TAM for the treatment of cancer may prove to be beneficial in the treatment of cancer. Due to the plastic nature of macrophages, their activities may be altered to inhibit tumor growth. In this review, we will discuss the therapeutic options for the modulation and targeting of TAM. Different therapeutic strategies to deplete, inhibit recruitment of, or re-educate TAM will be discussed. Current strategies for the targeting of TAM using nanomedicine are reviewed. Passive targeting using different nanoparticle systems is described. Since TAM display a number of upregulated surface proteins compared to non-TAM, specific targeting using targeting ligands coupled to nanoparticles is discussed in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Binnemars-Postma
- Targeted Therapeutics, Biomaterials Science and Technology, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente, 7522NB Enschede, The Netherlands.
| | - Gert Storm
- Targeted Therapeutics, Biomaterials Science and Technology, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente, 7522NB Enschede, The Netherlands.
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Utrecht University, 3584CS Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Jai Prakash
- Targeted Therapeutics, Biomaterials Science and Technology, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente, 7522NB Enschede, The Netherlands.
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19
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Wang Q, Sheng X, Shi A, Hu H, Yang Y, Liu L, Fei L, Liu H. β-Glucans: Relationships between Modification, Conformation and Functional Activities. Molecules 2017; 22:E257. [PMID: 28208790 PMCID: PMC6155770 DOI: 10.3390/molecules22020257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2016] [Accepted: 01/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
β-glucan is a type of polysaccharide which widely exists in bacteria, fungi, algae, and plants, and has been well known for its biological activities such as enhancing immunity, antitumor, antibacterial, antiviral, and wound healing activities. The conformation of β-glucan plays a crucial role on its biological activities. Therefore, β-glucans obtained from different sources, while sharing the same basic structures, often show different bioactivities. The basic structure and inter-molecular forces of polysaccharides can be changed by modification, which leads to the conformational transformation in solution that can directly affect bioactivity. In this review, we will first determine different ways to modify β-glucan molecules including physical methods, chemical methods, and biological methods, and then reveal the relationship of the flexible helix form of the molecule chain and the helix conformation to their bioactivities. Last, we summarize the scientific challenges to modifying β-glucan's conformation and functional activity, and discuss its potential future development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Wang
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Xiaojing Sheng
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Aimin Shi
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Hui Hu
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Ying Yang
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Li Liu
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Ling Fei
- Cornell University, Robert Frederick Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA.
| | - Hongzhi Liu
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Beijing 100193, China.
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20
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Non-viral nanoparticle delivers small interfering RNA to macrophages in vitro and in vivo. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0118472. [PMID: 25799489 PMCID: PMC4370462 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2014] [Accepted: 01/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages are increasingly being viewed as therapeutic target for various cancers and many inflammatory diseases. Sequence specific gene reduction by siRNA represents an attractive approach to modulate macrophage function. However, delivery of the therapeutic siRNA into macrophages by non-viral nanoparticles has been a major technical challenge. In this study, we developed a glucan-based siRNA carrier system (BG34-10-Re-I) and demonstrated that the BG34-10-Re-I can effectively assemble siRNA into uniformly distributed nanoparticles of the novel core-shell structure. The BG34-10-Re-I/siRNA nanoparticles effectively reduced gene expression of macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) in primary macrophages at both protein and mRNA level. The nanoparticles also mediated a sustained reduction of MIF within primary macrophages. Moreover, systemic injection of the nanoparticles into the Balb/c mice bearing 4T1 mammary tumors resulted in the MIF reduction in tumor-associated macrophages. Mechanistic studies demonstrated that the glucan-shell and the siRNA-core structure contribute to the effective delivery of MIF siRNA to macrophages both in vitro and in vivo. This study represents the first development of the primary macrophage MIF gene targeted non-viral nanoparticle system for both in vitro and in vivo applications.
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21
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Liu Q, Xu H, Cao Y, Li M, Xu X, Zhang L. Transfection efficiency and internalization of the gene carrier prepared from a triple-helical β-glucan and polydeoxyadenylic acid in macrophage RAW264.7 cells. J Mater Chem B 2015; 3:3789-3798. [DOI: 10.1039/c4tb02127d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The stability and gene transfection efficiency of poly(dA)–s-LNT complexes strongly depend on the base length of poly(dA) in the target DNA sequence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingye Liu
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences
- Wuhan University
- Wuhan 430072
- China
| | - Hui Xu
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences
- Wuhan University
- Wuhan 430072
- China
| | - Yan Cao
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences
- Wuhan University
- Wuhan 430072
- China
| | - Mengxia Li
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences
- Wuhan University
- Wuhan 430072
- China
| | - Xiaojuan Xu
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences
- Wuhan University
- Wuhan 430072
- China
| | - Lina Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences
- Wuhan University
- Wuhan 430072
- China
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22
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Liu Q, Wang C, Cao Y, Xu X, Zhang L. A novel gene carrier prepared from triple helical β-glucan and polydeoxyadenylic acid. J Mater Chem B 2014; 2:933-944. [DOI: 10.1039/c3tb21195a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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23
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Synthesis of β-1,3-glucan esters showing nanosphere formation. Carbohydr Polym 2013; 98:807-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2013.06.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2013] [Revised: 05/29/2013] [Accepted: 06/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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