Nanocarriers for the targeted treatment of ovarian cancers

Biomarkers: Promising and valuable tools towards diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of Covid-19 and other diseases

The use of biomarkers as early warning systems in the evaluation of disease risk has increased markedly in the last decade. Biomarkers are indicators of typical biological processes, pathogenic processes, or pharmacological reactions to therapy. The application and identification of biomarkers in the medical and clinical fields have an enormous impact on society. In this review, we discuss the history, various definitions, classifications, characteristics, and discovery of biomarkers. Furthermore, the potential application of biomarkers in the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of various diseases over the last decade are reviewed. The present review aims to inspire readers to explore new avenues in biomarker research and development.

Assessment of Pharmacokinetics, Toxicity, and Biodistribution of a High Dose of Titanate Nanotubes Following Intravenous Injection in Mice: A Promising Nanosystem of Medical Interest

Titanate nanotubes (TiNTs) produced by the static hydrothermal process present a promising nanosystem for nanomedicine. However, the behavior of these nanotubes in vivo is not yet clarified. In this work, for the first time, we investigated the toxicity of these materials, their pharmacokinetic profile, and their biodistribution in mice. A high dose of TiNTs (45 mg/kg) was intravenously injected in mice and monitored from 6 h to 45 days. The histological examination of organs and the analysis of liver and kidney function markers and then the inflammatory response were in agreement with a long-term innocuity of these nanomaterials. The parameters of pharmacokinetics revealed the rapid clarification of TiNTs from the bloodstream after 6 h of the intravenous injection which then mainly accumulated in the liver and spleen, and their degradation and clearance in these tissues were relatively slow (>4 weeks). Interestingly, an important property of these materials is their slow dissolution under the lysosome acid environment, rendering them biodegradable. It is noteworthy that TiNTs were directly eliminated in urine and bile ducts without obvious toxicity in mice. Altogether, all these typical in vivo tests studying the TiNT pharmacokinetics, toxicity, and biodistribution are supporting the use of these biocompatible nanomaterials in the biomedical field, especially as a nanocarrier-based drug delivery system.

CircRNA FGFR3 induces epithelial-mesenchymal transition of ovarian cancer by regulating miR-29a-3p/E2F1 axis

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a class of non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression after transcription. However, the specific function of circRNAs in ovarian cancer remains undetermined. Previous studies have demonstrated abnormal expression of circFGFR3 in several cancers. The present study was designed to reveal the roles of circFGFR3 in ovarian cancer (OC). CircFGFR3 expression in OC tissues and cells was detected by RT-qPCR. The effects of CircFGFR3 on OC cells were evaluated by transwell assay and CCK-8 assay. Finally, the underlying mechanism was further revealed by luciferase reporter assay and western blotting. Our results showed that circFGFR3 expression was higher in OC cells and tissues than in normal ovarian cells and adjacent normal tissues; in addition, in OC patients, a high level of CircFGFR3 was related to lower survival rates and higher recurrence rates than a low level of circFGFR3. CircFGFR3 overexpression promotes OC progression by inducing epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in vitro. Mechanistically, circFGFR3 upregulates E2F1 expression by sponging miR-29a-3p, and the overexpression of E2F1 or the suppression of miR-29a-3p induces OC cell EMT. Therefore, circFGFR3 serves as a promoter of OC by inducing OC cell EMT via the miR-29a-3p/E2F1 axis and circFGFR3 may be a prognostic biomarker for OC patients.

Nanoscale drug delivery strategies for therapy of ovarian cancer: conventional vs targeted

Ovarian cancer is the second most common gynaecological malignancy. It usually occurs in women older than 50 years, and because 75% of cases are diagnosed at stage III or IV it is associated with poor diagnosis. Despite the chemosensitivity of intraperitoneal chemotherapy, the majority of patients is relapsed and eventually dies. In addition to the challenge of early detection, its treatment presents several challenges like the route of administration, resistance to therapy with recurrence and specific targeting of cancer to reduce cytotoxicity and side effects. In ovarian cancer therapy, nanocarriers help overcome problems of poor aqueous solubility of chemotherapeutic drugs and enhance their delivery to the tumour sites either by passive or active targeting, and thus reducing adverse side effects to the healthy tissues. Moreover, the bioavailability to the tumour site is increased by the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) mechanism. The present review aims to describe the current conventional treatment with special reference to passively and actively targeted drug delivery systems (DDSs) towards specific receptors designed against ovarian cancer to overcome the drawbacks of conventional delivery. Conclusively, targeted nanocarriers would optimise the intra-tumour distribution, followed by drug delivery into the intracellular compartment. These features may contribute to greater therapeutic effect.

Recent advances of nanomedicines for liver cancer therapy

This review highlights recent advancements in nanomedicines for liver cancer therapy.

In vitro evaluation of folate-modified PLGA nanoparticles containing paclitaxel for ovarian cancer therapy

Ovarian cancer is the most lethal gynecological cancer of female reproductive system. In order to improve the survival rate, some modifications on nanoparticles surfaces have been investigated to promote active targeting of drugs into tumor microenvironment. The aim of this study was the development and characterization of folate-modified (PN-PCX-FA) and unmodified PLGA nanoparticles (PN-PCX) containing paclitaxel for ovarian cancer treatment. Nanocarriers were produced using nanoprecipitation technique and characterized by mean particle diameter (MPD), polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP), encapsulation efficiency (EE), DSC, FTIR, in vitro cytotoxicity and cellular uptake. PN-PCX and PN-PCX-FA showed MPD < 150 nm and PDI < 0.2 with high EE (about 90%). Cytotoxicity assays in SKOV-3 cells demonstrated the ability of both formulations to cause cellular damage. PCX encapsulated in PN-PCX-FA at 1 nM showed higher cytotoxicity than PN-PCX. Folate-modified nanoparticles showed a 3.6-fold higher cellular uptake than unmodified nanoparticles. PN-PCX-FA is a promising system to improve safety and efficacy of ovarian cancer treatment. Further in vivo studies are necessary to prove PN-PCX-FA potential.

Photo-Cured Glycol Chitosan Hydrogel for Ovarian Cancer Drug Delivery

In this study, we prepared an injectable drug delivery depot system based on a visible light-cured glycol chitosan (GC) hydrogel containing paclitaxel (PTX)-complexed beta-cyclodextrin (β-CD) (GC/CD/PTX) for ovarian cancer (OC) therapy using a tumor-bearing mouse model. The hydrogel depot system had a 23.8 Pa of storage modulus at 100 rad/s after visible light irradiation for 10 s. In addition, GC was swollen as a function of time. However, GC had no degradation with the time change. Eventually, the swollen GC matrix affected the releases of PTX and CD/PTX. GC/PTX and GC/CD/PTX exhibited a controlled release of PTX for 7 days. In addition, GC/CD/PTX had a rapid PTX release for 7 days due to improved water solubility of PTX through CD/PTX complex. In vitro cell viability tests showed that GC/CD/PTX had a lower cell viability percentage than the free PTX solution and GC/PTX. Additionally, GC/CD/PTX resulted in a superior antitumor effect against OC. Consequently, we suggest that the GC/CD system might have clinical potential for OC therapy by improving the water solubility of PTX, as PTX is included into the cavity of β-CD.

Supramolecular micellar drug delivery system based on multi-arm block copolymer for highly effective encapsulation and sustained-release chemotherapy

A novel multi-arm polyphosphoester-based nanomaterial provides high drug loading efficiency and sustained-release drug delivery for effective chemotherapy.

Targeting Membrane Receptors of Ovarian Cancer Cells for Therapy

Ovarian cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide from gynecological malignancies, mainly because there are few early symptoms and the disease is generally diagnosed at an advanced stage. In addition, despite the effectiveness of cytoreductive surgery for ovarian cancer and the high response rates to chemotherapy, survival has improved little over the last 20 years. The management of patients with ovarian cancer also remains similar despite studies showing striking differences and heterogeneity among different subtypes. It is therefore clear that novel targeted therapeutics are urgently needed to improve clinical outcomes for ovarian cancer. To that end, several membrane receptors associated with pivotal cellular processes and often aberrantly overexpressed in ovarian cancer cells have emerged as potential targets for receptor-mediated therapeutic strategies including specific agents and multifunctional delivery systems based on ligand-receptor binding. This review focuses on the profiles and potentials of such strategies proposed for ovarian cancer treatment and imaging.

Development of nanoparticulate systems with action in breast and ovarian cancer: nanotheragnostics

The use of nanoparticulate systems with action in breast and ovarian cancer has been highlighted in recent years as an alternative to increasing the therapeutic index of conventional anticancer drugs. Thus, nanoparticles have advantageous characteristics in the treatment of cancer. Several nanocarriers of drugs and nanoparticles are described in the literature. The pharmacokinetics of the drugs can be modified by the use of nanocarriers, which in turn facilitate the specific delivery of the drug to the tumour cell. Therefore, the present work is a review that examines some nanosystems with nanoparticles for action in the treatment of breast cancer and ovarian cancer.

A hierarchical assembly strategy to engineer dextran-enveloped polyurethane nanopolyplexes for robust ovarian cancer gene therapy

A hierarchical assembly strategy is herein investigated to generate bio-responsive, dextran-enveloped, bioreducible polyurethane nanopolyplexes for nonviral gene therapy against ovarian tumor. Initially, a group of poly(urethane amine)s were designed and characterized for in vitro gene transfection. The polyurethane containing 1,4-bis(3-aminopropyl)piperazine residue (PUBAP) could induce the best in vitro transfection efficacy against SKOV-3 or A2780 ovarian cancer cells. Next, dextran-enveloped PUBAP polyplexes (e-polyplexes) were constructed by a hierarchical assembly procedure involving gene neutralization with PUBAP and subsequent gene condensation with a cationic dextran (SSDP800). Such dextran comprised dextran (15 kDa) as the main chain and multiple disulfide-linked branched polyethylenimine (BPEI) oligomers as the side grafts. Additionally, folate-dextran-enveloped PUBAP polyplexes (FA-e-polyplexes) were fabricated by folate-modified SSDP800. These nanoscale-enveloped polyplexes elicited an improved colloidal stability against salt ions and negatively charged heparin, efficient endosomal escaping, and bioreduction-triggered intracellular gene release. In vitro transfection against SKOV-3 cells illustrated that FA-e-polyplexes exerted higher transfection efficiency in the serum than e-polyplexes and 25 kDa BPEI-polyplexes. In vivo, FA-e-polyplexes yielded higher transgene expression level than e-polyplexes in an SKOV-3 tumor-bearing nude mouse model. In the tumor gene therapy with a small hairpin RNA silencing vascular endothelial growth factor, FA-e-polyplexes afforded higher tumor growth inhibition than polyplexes of folate-PEGylated PUBAP and 25 kDa linear polyethylenimine as positive controls. Importantly, such gene therapy had minor toxic effects on the health of the mouse. This work highlights a practical hierarchical assembly method to construct innovative enveloped polyurethane nanopolyplexes enabling robust ovarian cancer gene therapy.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

It is indispensable to rationally update binary cationic polyplexes into ternary polyplexes for vigorous tumor gene therapy. In this work, we have confirmed that a hierarchical assembly strategy, by using initial gene neutralization and subsequent gene condensation, is facile and effective to promote cationic polyurethane polyplexes into ternary folate-dextran-enveloped polyurethane polyplexes with a relatively high gene-loading capacity. The enveloped polyplex system enables more efficient gene transfection than the PEGylated polyplex counterpart in ovarian cancer in vitro and in vivo, thereby affording robust ovarian cancer gene therapy. The development of innovative enveloped polyplexes may be a new direction for a non-viral gene delivery system.

Investigation of adhesive interactions in the specific targeting of Triptorelin-conjugated PEG-coated magnetite nanoparticles to breast cancer cells

The understanding of adhesive interaction at the nanoscale between functionalized nanoparticles and biological cells is of great importance to develop effective theranostic nanocarriers for targeted cancer therapy. Here, we report a combination of experimental and computational approaches to evaluate the adhesion between Triptorelin (a Luteinizing Hormone-Releasing Hormone (LHRH) agonist)-conjugated poly-(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-coated magnetite nanoparticles (Triptorelin-MNPs) and breast cells. The adhesion forces between Triptorelin-MNPs and normal/cancerous breast cells are obtained using atomic force microscopy. The corresponding work of adhesion is then estimated using Johnson-Kendall-Roberts model. Our results demonstrate that Triptorelin-MNPs have a fourteen-fold greater work of adhesion to breast cancer cells than to normal breast cells. In addition, the work of adhesion between Triptorelin-MNPs and breast cancer cells is found to be three times more than that between unmodified MNPs and breast cancer cells. Hence, the experimental observation indicates that Triptorelin ligands facilitate the specific targeting of breast cancer cells. Furthermore, molecular dynamics simulations are performed to investigate the molecular origins of the adhesive interactions. The simulations reveal that the interactions between molecules (e.g. Triptorelin and PEG) and LHRH receptors are dominated by van der Waals energies, while the interactions of these molecules with cell membrane are dominated by electrostatic interactions. Moreover, both experimental and computational results reveal that PEG serves as an effective coating that enhances adhesive interactions to breast cancer cells that over-express LHRH receptors, while reduces the adhesion to normal breast cells. Our results highlight the potential to develop Triptorelin-MNPs into tumor-specific MRI contrast agents and drug carriers.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

Systematic investigation of adhesive interactions between functionalized nanoparticles and cancer cells is of great importance in developing effective theranostic nanocarriers for targeted cancer therapy. Herein, we use a combination of atomic force microscopy technique and molecular dynamics simulations approach to explore the adhesive interactions at the nanoscale between Triptorelin-conjugated polyethylene glycol (PEG)-coated magnetite nanoparticles and normal/cancerous breast cells. This study characterizes and quantifies the work of adhesion, as well as adhesion forces, at the nanocarrier/cell interfaces, unravels the molecular origins of adhesive interactions and highlights the effectiveness of PEG coatings and Triptorelin ligands in the specific targeting of breast cancer cells. Our findings expand the fundamental understanding of nanoparticle/cell adhesion and provide guidelines for the design of more rational nanocarriers.

Antiproliferative Activity and VEGF Expression Reduction in MCF7 and PC-3 Cancer Cells by Paclitaxel and Imatinib Co-encapsulation in Folate-Targeted Liposomes

Co-encapsulation of anticancer drugs paclitaxel and imatinib in nanocarriers is a promising strategy to optimize cancer treatment. Aiming to combine the cytotoxic and antiangiogenic properties of the drugs, a liposome formulation targeted to folate receptor co-encapsulating paclitaxel and imatinib was designed in this work. An efficient method was optimized for the synthesis of the lipid anchor DSPE-PEG(2000)-folic acid (FA). The structure of the obtained product was confirmed by RMN, FT-IR, and ESI-MS techniques. A new analytical method was developed and validated for simultaneous quantification of the drugs by liquid chromatography. Liposomes, composed of phosphatidylcholine, cholesterol, and DSPE-mPEG(2000), were prepared by extrusion. Their surface was modified by post-insertion of DSPE-PEG(2000)-FA. Reaction yield for DSPE-PEG(2000)-FA synthesis was 87%. Liposomes had a mean diameter of 122.85 ± 1.48 nm and polydispersity index of 0.19 ± 0.01. Lyophilized formulations remained stable for 60 days in terms of size and drug loading. FA-targeted liposomes had a higher effect on MCF7 cell viability reduction (p < 0.05) when compared with non-targeted liposomes and free paclitaxel. On PC-3 cells, viability reduction was greater (p < 0.01) when cells were exposed to targeted vesicles co-encapsulating both drugs, compared with the non-targeted formulation. VEGF gene expression was reduced in MCF7 and PC-3 cells (p < 0.0001), with targeted vesicles exhibiting better performance than non-targeted liposomes. Our results demonstrate that multifunctional liposomes associating molecular targeting and multidrug co-encapsulation are an interesting strategy to achieve enhanced internalization and accumulation of drugs in targeted cells, combining multiple antitumor strategies.

Folate Receptor-targeted Bioflavonoid Genistein-loaded Chitosan Nanoparticles for Enhanced Anticancer Effect in Cervical Cancers

In this study, novel folic acid-conjugated chitosan nanoparticle was formulated for specific delivery of bioflavonoid, Genistein (GEN), to the cervical cancer cells. The prepared GEN-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (GCN) and folic acid-conjugated GCN (FGCN) showed smaller size with a controlled drug release profile. FGCN exhibited enhanced internalization potential in HeLa cells than that of GCN. The specific internalization of FGCN was mainly due to the affinity of folic acid (FA) with FRs-α which is present in large numbers in HeLa cells. The results revealed that FGCN has a specific affinity towards HeLa cells that will contribute to the better treatment. Folic acid-tagged nanoformulations exhibited a superior cytotoxic effect compared to that of non-targeted formulations. Consistently, IC50 value of GEN decreased from 33.8 to 14.6 μg/ml when treated with FGCN after 24 h incubation. The apoptosis studies indicated that the FGCN nanoparticles were then either GCN or free GEN in terms of anticancer activity. Overall, results revealed that folate conjugation to the delivery system might have great effect on the survival of cervical cancers that will be beneficial for overall cancer treatment.

TPGS-Functionalized Polydopamine-Modified Mesoporous Silica as Drug Nanocarriers for Enhanced Lung Cancer Chemotherapy against Multidrug Resistance

A nanocarrier system of d-a-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS)-functionalized polydopamine-coated mesoporous silica nanoparticles (NPs) is developed for sustainable and pH-responsive delivery of doxorubicin (DOX) as a model drug for the treatment of drug-resistant nonsmall cell lung cancer. Such nanoparticles are of desired particle size, drug loading, and drug release profile. The surface morphology, surface charge, and surface chemical properties are also successfully characterized by a series of techniques such as transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method, thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), dynamic light scattering (DLS), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The normal A549 cells and drug-resistant A549 cells are employed to access the cytotoxicity and cellular uptake of the NPs. The therapeutic effects of TPGS-conjugated nanoparticles are evaluated in vitro and in vivo. Compared with free DOX and DOX-loaded NPs without TPGS ligand modification, MSNs-DOX@PDA-TPGS exhibits outstanding capacity to overcome multidrug resistance and shows better in vivo therapeutic efficacy. This splendid drug delivery platform can also be sued to deliver other hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs.

pH-Sensitive Delivery Vehicle Based on Folic Acid-Conjugated Polydopamine-Modified Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for Targeted Cancer Therapy

In this study, we introduced a targeting polymer poly(ethylene glycol)-folic acid (PEG-FA) on the surface of polydopamine (PDA)-modified mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) to develop the novel nanoparticles (NPs) MSNs@PDA-PEG-FA, which were employed as a drug delivery system loaded with doxorubicin (DOX) as a model drug for cervical cancer therapy. The chemical structure and properties of these NPs were characterized by transmission electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, N₂ adsorption/desorption, dynamic light scattering-autosizer, thermogravimetric analysis, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The pH-sensitive PDA coating served as a gatekeeper. The in vitro drug release experiments showed pH-dependent and sustained drug release profiles that could enhance the therapeutic anticancer effect and minimize potential damage to normal cells due to the acidic microenvironment of the tumor. These MSNs@PDA-PEG-FA achieved significantly high targeting efficiency, which was demonstrated by the in vitro cellular uptake and cellular targeting assay. Compared with that of free DOX and DOX-loaded NPs without the folic targeting ligand, the FA-targeted NPs exhibited higher antitumor efficacy in vivo, implying that they are a highly promising potential carrier for cancer treatments.

Nanomedicine-based intraperitoneal therapy for the treatment of peritoneal carcinomatosis - Mission possible?

Intraperitoneal (IP) drug delivery represents an attractive strategy for the local treatment of peritoneal carcinomatosis (PC). Over the past decade, a lot of effort has been put both in the academia and clinic in developing IP therapeutic approaches that maximize local efficacy while limiting systemic side effects. Also nanomedicines are under investigation for the treatment of tumors confined to the peritoneal cavity, due to their potential to increase the peritoneal retention and to target drugs to the tumor sites as compared to free drugs. Despite the progress reported by multiple clinical studies, there are no FDA approved drugs or formulations for specific use in the IP cavity yet. This review discusses the current clinical management of PC, as well as recent advances in nanomedicine-based IP delivery. We address important challenges to be overcome towards designing optimal nanocarriers for IP therapy in vivo.

Dextranated poly(urethane amine)s designed for systemic gene delivery in ovarian cancer therapy

Dextranated poly(urethane amine)s can be designed for robust ovarian cancer gene therapy.

Chitosan Nanolayered Cisplatin-Loaded Lipid Nanoparticles for Enhanced Anticancer Efficacy in Cervical Cancer

In this study, cisplatin (CDDP)-loaded chitosan-coated solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) was successfully formulated to treat HeLa cervical carcinoma. The formulation nanoparticles were nanosized and exhibited a controlled release of drug in physiological conditions. The blank nanoparticles exhibited an excellent biocompatibility profile indicating its suitability for cancer targeting. The incorporation of CDDP in SLN remarkably increased the cancer cell death as evident from the MTT assay. Importantly, CDDP-loaded chitosan-coated SLN (CChSLN) significantly (P < 0.05) decreased the viability of cancer cells even at low concentration. The higher cytotoxicity potential of CChSLN was attributed to the higher cellular uptake as well as the sustained drug release manner in comparison with CSLN. Consistent with the cytotoxicity assay, CChSLN showed the lowest IC50 value of 0.6125 μg/ml while CSLN presented 1.156 μg/ml. CChSLN showed a significantly higher apoptosis in cancer cells compared to that of CSLN and CDDP, which is attributed to the better internalization of nanocarriers and controlled release of anticancer drugs in the intracellular environment. Our findings suggest that this new formulation could be a promising alternative for the treatment of cervical cancers. These findings are encouraging us to continue our research, with a more extended investigation of cellular response in real time and in animal models.

Exploiting developments in nanotechnology for the preferential delivery of platinum-based anti-cancer agents to tumours: targeting some of the hallmarks of cancer

Platinum drugs as anti-cancer therapeutics are held in extremely high regard. Despite their success, there are drawbacks associated with their use; their dose-limiting toxicity, their limited activity against an array of common cancers and patient resistance to Pt-based therapeutic regimes. Current investigations in medicinal inorganic chemistry strive to offset these shortcomings through selective targeting of Pt drugs and/or the development of Pt drugs with new or multiple modes of action. A comprehensive overview showcasing how liposomes, nanocapsules, polymers, dendrimers, nanoparticles and nanotubes may be employed as vehicles to selectively deliver cytotoxic Pt payloads to tumour cells is provided.

Effect of PEGylated chitosan as multifunctional stabilizer for deacetyl mycoepoxydience nanosuspension design and stability evaluation

Here a series of multifunctional stabilizers was designed and used in a nanosuspension stability enhancement study. Methoxypolyethylene glycol (M PEG)-grafted chitosan, accompanied by space steric hindrance, an electrostatic repulsion function, and a solvation effect, is a multifunctional stabilizer. Deacetyl mycoepoxydience (DM) nanosuspension was prepared using the anti-solvent precipitation approach. The effects of the DM and the multifunctional stabilizer concentration, solvent to anti-solvent ratio, crystallization and storage temperature, and ultrasonic time on drug particle formation during the anti-solvent processing were investigated and the nanosuspension stability was studied. The nanosuspension showed dendritic-like nanostructures and a crystalline state in a morphology and crystalline state study. The optimized drug and multifunctional stabilizer concentration range were selected through the response surface optimization method. The most appropriate and stable nanosuspension could be obtained through the optimal parameters. This study demonstrated that M PEG-grafted chitosan (M PEGC) could be used as a multifunctional stabilizer to control particle size and improve nanosuspension stability.

Combining Stimulus-Triggered Release and Active Targeting Strategies Improves Cytotoxicity of Cytochrome c Nanoparticles in Tumor Cells

Proteins often possess highly specific biological activities that make them potential therapeutics, but their physical and chemical instabilities during formulation, storage, and delivery have limited their medical use. Therefore, engineering of nanosized vehicles to stabilize protein therapeutics and to allow for targeted treatment of complex diseases, such as cancer, is of considerable interest. A micelle-like nanoparticle (NP) was designed for both, tumor targeting and stimulus-triggered release of the apoptotic protein cytochrome c (Cyt c). This system is composed of a Cyt c NP stabilized by a folate-receptor targeting amphiphilic copolymer (FA-PEG-PLGA) attached to Cyt c through a redox-sensitive bond. FA-PEG-PLGA-S-S-Cyt c NPs exhibited excellent stability under extracellular physiological conditions, whereas once in the intracellular reducing environment, Cyt c was released from the conjugate. Under the same conditions, the folate-decorated NP reduced folate receptor positive HeLa cell viability to 20%, while the same complex without FA only reduced it to 80%. Confocal microscopy showed that the FA-PEG-PLGA-S-S-Cyt c NPs were internalized by HeLa cells and were capable of endosomal escape. The specificity of the folate receptor-mediated internalization was confirmed by the lack of uptake by two folate receptor deficient cell lines: A549 and NIH-3T3. Finally, the potential as antitumor therapy of our folate-decorated Cyt c-based NPs was confirmed with an in vivo brain tumor model. In conclusion, we were able to create a stable, selective, and smart nanosized Cyt c delivery system.

Biocompatible titanate nanotubes with high loading capacity of genistein: cytotoxicity study and anti-migratory effect on U87-MG cancer cell lines

Titanate nanotubes (Ti-Nts) have proved to be a potential candidate for drug delivery due to their large surface change and higher cellular uptake as a direct consequence of their tubular shape.

Multifunctional cationic polyurethanes designed for non-viral cancer gene therapy

Nano-polyplexes from bioreducible cationic polymers have a massive promise for cancer gene therapy. However, the feasibility of cationic polyurethanes for non-viral gene therapy is so far not well studied. In this work, a linear cationic polyurethane containing disulfide bonds, urethane linkages and protonable tertiary amino groups was successfully generated by stepwise polycondensation reaction between 2,2'-dithiodiethanol bis(p-nitrophenyl carbonate) and 1,4-bis(3-aminopropyl)piperazine (BAP). We confirmed that the cationic polyurethane (denoted as PUBAP) displayed superior gene delivery properties to its cationic polyamide analogue, thus causing higher in vitro transfection efficiency in MCF-7 and SKOV-3 cells. Besides, further folate-PEGylation and hydrophobic deoxycholic acid (DCA) conjugation to amino-containing PUBAP can be conducted to afford multifunctional polyurethane gene delivery system. After optimization, folate-decorated nano-polyplexes from the PUBAP conjugated with 8 folate-PEG chains and 12 DCA residues exhibited superb colloidal stability under physiological conditions, and performed rapid uptake via folate receptor-mediated endocytosis, efficient intracellular gene release and nucleus translocation into SKOV-3 cells in vitro and in vivo. Importantly, PUBAP based polyplexes possess low cytotoxicity as a result of PUBAP biodegradability. Therefore, marked growth inhibition of SKOV-3 tumor xenografted in Balb/c nude mice was achieved with negligible side effects on the mouse health after intravenous administration of PUBAP based polyplexes with a therapeutic plasmid encoding for TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand. This work provides a new insight into biomedical application of bio-responsive polyurethanes for cancer therapy.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

In this study, we have confirmed that disulfide-based cationic polyurethane presents a new non-viral vector for gene transfer and cancer gene therapy. The significance of this work includes: (1) design and synthesis of a group of novel disulfide-based cationic polyurethane by non-isocyanate chemistry; (2) comparative study of transfection activity between cationic polyurethanes and cationic polyamides; (3) feasibility of bioreducible cationic polyurethanes for in vivo cancer gene therapy.

Drug delivery systems for ovarian cancer treatment: a systematic review and meta-analysis of animal studies

Current ovarian cancer treatment involves chemotherapy that has serious limitations, such as rapid clearance, unfavorable biodistribution and severe side effects. To overcome these limitations, drug delivery systems (DDS) have been developed to encapsulate chemotherapeutics for delivery to tumor cells. However, no systematic assessment of the efficacy of chemotherapy by DDS compared to free chemotherapy (not in a DDS) has been performed for animal studies. Here, we assess the efficacy of chemotherapy in DDS on survival and tumor growth inhibition in animal studies. We searched PubMed and EMBASE (via OvidSP) to systematically identify studies evaluating chemotherapeutics encapsulated in DDS for ovarian cancer treatment in animal studies. Studies were assessed for quality and risk of bias. Study characteristics were collected and outcome data (survival/hazard ratio or tumor growth inhibition) were extracted and used for meta-analyses. Meta-analysis was performed to identify and explore which characteristics of DDS influenced treatment efficacy. A total of 44 studies were included after thorough literature screening (2,735 studies found after initial search). The risk of bias was difficult to assess, mainly because of incomplete reporting. A total of 17 studies (377 animals) and 16 studies (259 animals) could be included in the meta-analysis for survival and tumor growth inhibition, respectively. In the majority of the included studies chemotherapeutics entrapped in a DDS significantly improved efficacy over free chemotherapeutics regarding both survival and tumor growth inhibition. Subgroup analyses, however, revealed that cisplatin entrapped in a DDS did not result in additional tumor growth inhibition compared to free cisplatin, although it did result in improved survival. Micelles did not show a significant tumor growth inhibition compared to free chemotherapeutics, which indicates that micelles may not be a suitable DDS for ovarian cancer treatment. Other subgroup analyses, such as targeted versus non-targeted DDS or IV versus IP administration route, did not identify specific characteristics of DDS that affected treatment efficacy. This systematic review shows the potential, but also the limitations of chemotherapy by drug delivery systems for ovarian cancer treatment. For future animal research, we emphasize that data need to be reported with ample attention to detailed reporting.

Genistein-loaded nanoparticles of star-shaped diblock copolymer mannitol-core PLGA-TPGS for the treatment of liver cancer

The purpose of this research is to develop nanoparticles (NPs) of star-shaped copolymer mannitol-functionalized PLGA-TPGS for Genistein delivery for liver cancer treatment, and evaluate their therapeutic effects in liver cancer cell line and hepatoma-tumor-bearing nude mice in comparison with the linear PLGA nanoparticles and PLGA-TPGS nanoparticles. The Genistein-loaded M-PLGA-TPGS nanoparticles (MPTN), prepared by a modified nanoprecipitation method, were observed by FESEM and TEM to be near-spherical shape with narrow size distribution. The nanoparticles were further characterized in terms of their size, size distribution, surface charge, drug-loading content, encapsulation efficiency and in vitro drug release profiles. The data showed that the M-PLGA-TPGS nanoparticles were found to be stable, showing almost no change in particle size and surface charge during 3-month storage of their aqueous solution. In vitro Genistein release from the nanoparticles exhibited biphasic pattern with burst release at the initial 4days and sustained release afterwards. The cellular uptake efficiency of fluorescent M-PLGA-TPGS nanoparticles was 1.25-, 1.22-, and 1.29-fold higher than that of the PLGA-TPGS nanoparticles at the nanoparticle concentrations of 100, 250, and 500μg/mL, respectively. In the MPTN group, the ratio of apoptotic cells increased with the drug dose increased, which exhibited dose-dependent effect and a significant difference compared with Genistein solution group (p<0.05). The data also showed that the Genistein-loaded M-PLGA-TPGS nanoparticles have higher antitumor efficacy than that of linear PLGA-TPGS nanoparticles and PLGA nanoparticles in vitro and in vivo. In conclusion, the star-shaped copolymer M-PLGA-TPGS could be used as a potential and promising bioactive material for nanomedicine development for liver cancer treatment.

Porphine functionalized nanoparticles of star-shaped poly(ε-caprolactone)-b-D-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate biodegradable copolymer for chemophotodynamic therapy on cervical cancer

We developed a system of biodegradable nanoparticles (NPs) of 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-aminophenyl)-21H,23H-porphine (TAPP) centered, 4 arm star-shaped copolymers based on poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) and D-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) for combinatory chemophotodynamic therapy by using docetaxel (DTX) as a model anticancer drug and TAPP as photodynamic sensitizer. TPGS component in the copolymer plays an important role in enhancing the drug encapsulation efficiency, drug release kinetics and cellular uptake of the NPs, as well as in overcoming the multidrug resistance due to inhibition of P-glycoproteins (P-gp) of the cancer cells. We demonstrated in vitro by using the MCF7/ADR breast cancer cells of P-gp overexpression and the HeLa cervical cancer cells that the proposed chemophotodynamic therapy by the DTX-loaded TAPP-PCL-b-TPGS NPs could have much higher therapeutic effect than the original drug Taxotere®. IC50 data showed that the DTX-loaded TAPP-PCL-b-TPGS NPs chemophotodynamic therapy could be 9.36 and 56.5-fold efficient after 24 and 48h treatment, respectively in comparison with the Taxotere® chemotherapy. The in vivo investigation by employing a cervical cancer xenograft model further confirmed the advantages of the proposed chemophotodynamic therapy by the DTX-loaded TAPP-PCL-b-TPGS NPs versus the Taxotere® chemotherapy.

Matrices of a hydrophobically functionalized hyaluronic acid derivative for the locoregional tumour treatment

A hyaluronic acid (HA) derivative bearing octadecylamine and acylhydrazine functionalities has been here employed for the production of a paclitaxel delivering matrix for locoregional chemotherapy. Through a strategy consisting in a powder compression and a plasticization with a mixture water/ethanol, a physically assembled biomaterial, stable in solutions with physiologic ionic strengths, has been produced. Two different drug loading strategies have been adopted, by using paclitaxel as chemotherapic agent, and obtained samples have been assayed in terms of release in enhanced solubility conditions and in vitro and in vivo tumoural cytotoxicity. In particular sample with the best releasing characteristics was chosen for an in vivo evaluation against a HCT-116 xenograft on mice. Local tumour establishment and metastatic diffusion was assayed locally at the site of xenograft implantation and at the tributary lymph nodes. Obtained results demonstrated how loading procedure influenced paclitaxel crystallinity into the matrix and consequently drug diffusion and its cytoreductive potential. Chosen paclitaxel loaded matrix was able to drastically inhibit HCT-116 establishment and metastatic diffusion.

Fabrication of genistein-loaded biodegradable TPGS-b-PCL nanoparticles for improved therapeutic effects in cervical cancer cells

Genistein is one of the most studied isoflavonoids with potential antitumor efficacy, but its poor water solubility limits its clinical application. Nanoparticles (NPs), especially biodegradable NPs, entrapping hydrophobic drugs have promising applications to improve the water solubility of hydrophobic drugs. In this work, TPGS-b-PCL copolymer was synthesized from ε-caprolactone initiated by d-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) through ring-opening polymerization and characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, gel permeation chromatography, and thermogravimetric analysis. The genistein-loaded NPs were prepared by a modified nanoprecipitation method and characterized in the aspects of particle size, surface charge, morphology, drug loading and encapsulation efficiency, in vitro drug release, and physical state of the entrapped drug. The TPGS-b-PCL NPs were found to have higher cellular uptake efficiency than PCL NPs. MTT and colony formation experiments indicated that genistein-loaded TPGS-b-PCL NPs achieved the highest level of cytotoxicity and tumor cell growth inhibition compared with pristine genistein and genistein-loaded PCL NPs. Furthermore, compared with pristine genistein and genistein-loaded PCL NPs, the genistein-loaded TPGS-b-PCL NPs at the same dose were more effective in inhibiting tumor growth in the subcutaneous HeLa xenograft tumor model in BALB/c nude mice. In conclusion, the results suggested that genistein-loaded biodegradable TPGS-b-PCL nanoparticles could enhance the anticancer effect of genistein both in vitro and in vivo, and may serve as a potential candidate in treating cervical cancer.

Targeting FR-expressing cells in ovarian cancer with Fab-functionalized nanoparticles: a full study to provide the proof of principle from in vitro to in vivo

Efficient targeting in tumor therapies is still an open issue: systemic biodistribution and poor specific accumulation of drugs weaken efficacy of treatments. Engineered nanoparticles are expected to bring benefits by allowing specific delivery of drug to the tumor or acting themselves as localized therapeutic agents. In this study we have targeted epithelial ovarian cancer with inorganic nanoparticles conjugated to a human antibody fragment against the folate receptor over-expressed on cancer cells. The conjugation approach is generally applicable. Indeed several types of nanoparticles (either magnetic or fluorescent) were engineered with the fragment, and their biological activity was preserved as demonstrated by biochemical methods in vitro. In vivo studies with mice bearing orthotopic and subcutaneous tumors were performed. Elemental and histological analyses showed that the conjugated magnetic nanoparticles accumulated specifically and were retained at tumor sites longer than the non-conjugated nanoparticles.

Active targeted drug delivery for microbes using nano-carriers

Although vaccines and antibiotics could kill or inhibit microbes, many infectious diseases remain difficult to treat because of acquired resistance and adverse side effects. Nano-carriers-based technology has made significant progress for a long time and is introducing a new paradigm in drug delivery. However, it still has some challenges like lack of specificity toward targeting the infectious site. Nanocarriers utilized targeting ligands on their surface called 'active target' provide the promising way to solve the problems like accelerating drug delivery to infectious areas and preventing toxicity or side-effects. In this mini review, we demonstrate the recent studies using the active targeted strategy to kill or inhibit microbes. The four common nano-carriers (e.g. liposomes, nanoparticles, dendrimers and carbon nanotubes) delivering encapsulated drugs are introduced.

Harnessing the potential of lipid-based nanomedicines for type-specific ovarian cancer treatments

Epithelial ovarian cancers are a group of at least five histologically and clinically distinct diseases, yet at this time patients with these different diseases are all treated with the same platinum and taxane-based chemotherapeutic regimen. With increased knowledge of histotype-specific differences that correlate with treatment responses and resistance, novel treatment strategies will be developed for each distinct disease. Type-specific or resistance-driven molecularly targeted agents will provide some specificity over traditional chemotherapies and it is argued here that nanoscaled drug delivery systems, in particular lipid-based formulations, have the potential to improve the delivery and specificity of pathway-specific drugs and broad-spectrum cytotoxic chemotherapeutics. An overview of the current understanding of ovarian cancers and the evolving clinical management of these diseases is provided. This overview is needed as it provides the context for understanding the current role of drug delivery systems in the treatment of ovarian cancer and the need to design formulations for treatment of clinically distinct forms of ovarian cancer.

Colloidal stability of nano-sized particles in the peritoneal fluid: towards optimizing drug delivery systems for intraperitoneal therapy

Intraperitoneal (IP) administration of nano-sized delivery vehicles containing small interfering RNA (siRNA) has recently gained attention as an alternative route for the efficient treatment of peritoneal carcinomatosis. The colloidal stability of nanomatter following IP administration has, however, not been thoroughly investigated yet. Here, enabled by advanced microscopy methods such as single particle tracking and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, we follow the aggregation and cargo release of nano-scaled systems directly in peritoneal fluids from healthy mice and ascites fluid from a patient diagnosed with peritoneal carcinomatosis. The colloidal stability in the peritoneal fluids was systematically studied as a function of the charge (positive or negative) and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) degree of liposomes and polystyrene nanoparticles, and compared to human serum. Our data demonstrate strong aggregation of cationic and anionic nanoparticles in the peritoneal fluids, while only slight aggregation was observed for the PEGylated ones. PEGylated liposomes, however, lead to a fast and premature release of siRNA cargo in the peritoneal fluids. Based on our observations, we reflect on how to tailor improved delivery systems for IP therapy.

Facile route to versatile nanoplatforms for drug delivery by one-pot self-assembly

There is still unmet demand for developing powerful approaches to produce polymeric nanoplatforms with versatile functions and broad applications, which are essential for the successful bench-to-bedside translation of polymeric nanotherapeutics developed in the laboratory. We have discovered a facile, convenient, cost-effective and easily scalable one-pot strategy to assemble various lipophilic therapeutics bearing carboxyl groups into nanomedicines, through which highly effective cargo loading and nanoparticle formation can be achieved simultaneously. Besides dramatically improving water solubility, the assembled nanopharmaceuticals showed significantly higher bioavailability and much better therapeutic activity. These one-pot assemblies may also serve as nanocontainers to effectively accommodate other highly hydrophobic drugs such as paclitaxel (PTX). PTX nanomedicines thus formulated display strikingly enhanced in vitro antitumor activity and can reverse the multidrug resistance of tumor cells to PTX therapy. The special surface chemistry offers these assembled entities the additional capability of efficiently packaging and efficaciously transfecting plasmid DNA, with a transfection efficiency markedly higher than that of commonly used positive controls. Consequently, this one-pot assembly approach provides a facile route to multifunctional nanoplatforms for simultaneous delivery of multiple therapeutics with improved therapeutic significance.

Nanoparticles of star-like copolymer mannitol-functionalized poly(lactide)-vitamin E TPGS for delivery of paclitaxel to prostate cancer cells

The purpose of this research was to develop novel nanoparticles (NPs) of star-like copolymer mannitol-functionalized poly(lactide)-vitamin E TPGS (M-PLA-TPGS) for paclitaxel delivery for prostate cancer treatment, and evaluate their therapeutic effects in prostate cancer cell line and animal model in comparison with the linear PLGA NPs and poly(lactide)-vitamin E TPGS (PLA-TPGS) NPs. The paclitaxel-loaded M-PLA-TPGS NPs, prepared by a modified nano-precipitation method, were observed by FESEM to be near-spherical shape with narrow size distribution. The drug-loaded NPs were further characterized in terms of size, surface charge, drug content, encapsulation efficiency and in vitro drug release. The results showed that the M-PLA-TPGS NPs were found to be stable, showing almost no change in particle size and surface charge during the three-month storage period. In vitro drug release exhibited biphasic pattern with initial burst release followed by slow and continuous release. The cellular uptake level of M-PLA-TPGS NPs was demonstrated higher than linear PLGA NPs and PLA-TPGS NPs in PC-3 cells. The data also showed that the paclitaxel-loaded M-PLA-TPGS nanoparticles have higher antitumor efficacy than that of linear PLA-TPGS nanoparticles and PLGA nanoparticles in vitro and in vivo. In summary, the star-like copolymer M-PLA-TPGS could be used as a potential and promising molecular biomaterial in developing novel nanoformulation for prostate cancer treatment.

Rationally designed nanovehicles to overcome cancer chemoresistance

Drug resistance is a primary hindrance towards curative cancer chemotherapy. Nanotechnology holds great promise in establishing efficacious and innovative strategies to overcome chemoresistance, and markedly facilitate complementary treatments and cancer diagnostics. Various nanomedical devices are being introduced and evaluated, demonstrating encouraging results. While stealth liposomes serve as a benchmark, astonishing progress is witnessed in polymeric nanovehicles, sometimes combined with low molecular weight surfactants, some of which inhibit drug resistance in addition to solubilizing drugs. Cutting edge multifunctional or quadrugnostic nanoparticles currently developed offer simultaneous targeted delivery of chemotherapeutics and chemosensitizers or drug-resistance gene silencing cargo, along with diagnostic imaging agents, like metallic NPs. Viral and cellular components offer exciting new routes for cancer targeting and treatment. Targeting intracellular compartments is another challenging frontier spawning pioneering approaches and results. To further enhance rational design of nanomedicine for overcoming drug resistance, we review the latest thoughts and accomplishments in recent literature.

Effect of lipid composition of cationic SUV liposomes on materno-fetal transfer of warfarin across the perfused human term placenta

INTRODUCTION

Use of drugs that cross the placenta freely are currently avoided during pregnancy. We investigated whether cationic small unilamellar (SUV) liposomes of different lipid compositions could prevent the transfer and uptake of warfarin across human term placenta.

METHODS

Cationic liposomes encapsulated warfarin was prepared by using lecithin (F-SUV) or sterylamine (S-SUV) with cholesterol and stearylamine. The size distribution, encapsulation efficiency, and stability were determined in blood-based media. The transfer kinetics of free and liposomally encapsulated warfarin were studied in a dually perfused isolated lobule of human term placenta with creatinine. Concentrations of warfarin were measured by fluorimetry. Data are expressed as % of initial dose added and given as mean ± sd.

RESULTS

Warfarin crossed the placenta freely (14.9 ± 1.1%). Trans placental transfer of warfarin was significantly reduced by F-SUV (6.4 ± 0.6%; P < 0.001) and S-SUV liposomes (5.0 ± 0.8%; P < 0.001). Placental uptake of F-SUV (6.3 ± 1.7%; P < 0.001) was greater than that of S-SUV liposomes (2.2 ± 0.5%; P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that cationic liposomes reduce trans placental transfer of warfarin. If confirmed "in vivo", liposomes might provide an alternative non-invasive method of drug delivery to the mother.

Paclitaxel-loaded nanoparticles of star-shaped cholic acid-core PLA-TPGS copolymer for breast cancer treatment

A system of novel nanoparticles of star-shaped cholic acid-core polylactide-d-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (CA-PLA-TPGS) block copolymer was developed for paclitaxel delivery for breast cancer treatment, which demonstrated superior in vitro and in vivo performance in comparison with paclitaxel-loaded poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles and linear PLA-TPGS nanoparticles. The paclitaxel- or couramin 6-loaded nanoparticles were fabricated by a modified nanoprecipitation method and then characterized in terms of size, surface charge, surface morphology, drug encapsulation efficiency, and in vitro drug release. The CA-PLA-TPGS nanoparticles were found to be spherical in shape with an average size of around 120 nm. The nanoparticles were found to be stable, showing no change in the particle size and surface charge during 90-day storage of the aqueous solution. The release profiles of the paclitaxel-loaded nanoparticles exhibited typically biphasic release patterns. The results also showed that the CA-PLA-TPGS nanoparticles have higher antitumor efficacy than the PLA-TPGS nanoparticles and PLGA nanoparticles in vitro and in vivo. In conclusion, such nanoparticles of star-shaped cholic acid-core PLA-TPGS block copolymer could be considered as a potentially promising and effective strategy for breast cancer treatment.

Rapid and soft formulation of folate-functionalized nanoparticles for the targeted delivery of tripentone in ovarian carcinoma

We report the development of folate-functionalized nanoparticles able to target folate receptors, and to deliver a poorly water soluble cytotoxic agent, a tripentone, in ovarian carcinoma. The stability under incubation of lipid nanoparticles formulated by a low-energy phase inversion temperature method was investigated. Thanks to the presence of Labrasol(®), a macrogolglyceride into the composition of the nanocarriers, the conjugation of different quantities of a folate derivate (folic acid-polyethylene glycol2000-distearylphosphatidylethanolamine) to nanoparticles was possible by a rapid, soft, very simple post-insertion process. As determined by dynamic light scattering, nanoparticles present a monodisperse diameter of about 100 nm, a spherical shape as attested by transmission electron micrographs, a weakly negative surface zeta potential, and are able to encapsulate the tripentone MR22388. The presence of folate receptors on SKOV3 human ovarian cancer cells was identified by fluorescent immunocytochemistry. Cellular uptake studies assessed by flow cytometry indicated that these nanoparticles reached the SKOV3 cells rapidly, and were internalized by a folate-receptor mediated endocytosis pathway. Moreover, nanoparticles allowed the rapid delivery of the antitumor agent tripentone into cells as shown in vitro by real-time cellular activity assay. Such folate-lipid nanoparticles are a potential carrier for targeted delivery of poorly water soluble compounds into ovarian carcinoma.

Encapsulation of paclitaxel into lauric acid-O-carboxymethyl chitosan-transferrin micelles for hydrophobic drug delivery and site-specific targeted delivery

Transferrin/PEG/O-carboxymethyl chitosan/fatty acid/paclitaxel (TPOCFP) micelles were tested for suitability as a drug carrier characterized by low cytotoxicity, sustained release, high cellular uptake, and site-specific targeted delivery of hydrophobic drugs. Characterization, drug content, encapsulation efficiency, and in vitro drug release were investigated. When the feeding amount of paclitaxel (PTX) was increased, the drug content increased, but loading efficiency decreased. TPOCFP micelles had a spherical shape, with a particle size of approximately 140-649 nm. In vitro cell cytotoxicity and hemolysis assays were conducted to confirm the safety of the micelles. Anticancer activity and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) were used to confirm the targeting efficiency of target ligand-modified TPOCFP micelles. Anticancer activity and CLSM results clearly demonstrated that transferrin-modified TPOCFP micelles were quickly taken up by the cell. The endocytic pathway of TPOCFP micelles was analyzed by flow cytometry, revealing transfection via receptor-mediated endocytosis. These results suggest that PTX-encapsulated TPOCFP micelles may be used as an effective cancer-targeting drug delivery system for chemotherapy.