1
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Lu Q, Sun Y, Liang Z, Zhang Y, Wang Z, Mei Q. Nano-optogenetics for Disease Therapies. ACS NANO 2024; 18:14123-14144. [PMID: 38768091 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.4c00698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Optogenetic, known as the method of 21 centuries, combines optic and genetic engineering to precisely control photosensitive proteins for manipulation of a broad range of cellular functions, such as flux of ions, protein oligomerization and dissociation, cellular intercommunication, and so on. In this technique, light is conventionally delivered to targeted cells through optical fibers or micro light-emitting diodes, always suffering from high invasiveness, wide-field illumination facula, strong absorption, and scattering by nontargeted endogenous substance. Light-transducing nanomaterials with advantages of high spatiotemporal resolution, abundant wireless-excitation manners, and easy functionalization for recognition of specific cells, recently have been widely explored in the field of optogenetics; however, there remain a few challenges to restrain its clinical applications. This review summarized recent progress on light-responsive genetically encoded proteins and the myriad of activation strategies by use of light-transducing nanomaterials and their disease-treatment applications, which is expected for sparking helpful thought to push forward its preclinical and translational uses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Lu
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, China
| | - Yaru Sun
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, China
| | - Zhengbing Liang
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, China
| | - Zhigang Wang
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, China
| | - Qingsong Mei
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, China
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2
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Wang X, Liang Q, Luo Y, Ye J, Yu Y, Chen F. Engineering the next generation of theranostic biomaterials with synthetic biology. Bioact Mater 2024; 32:514-529. [PMID: 38026437 PMCID: PMC10660023 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2023.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Biomaterials have evolved from inert materials to responsive entities, playing a crucial role in disease diagnosis, treatment, and modeling. However, their advancement is hindered by limitations in chemical and mechanical approaches. Synthetic biology enabling the genetically reprograming of biological systems offers a new paradigm. It has achieved remarkable progresses in cell reprogramming, engineering designer cells for diverse applications. Synthetic biology also encompasses cell-free systems and rational design of biological molecules. This review focuses on the application of synthetic biology in theranostics, which boost rapid development of advanced biomaterials. We introduce key fundamental concepts of synthetic biology and highlight frontier applications thereof, aiming to explore the intersection of synthetic biology and biomaterials. This integration holds tremendous promise for advancing biomaterial engineering with programable complex functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Wang
- Center for Materials Synthetic Biology, CAS Key Laboratory of Quantitative Engineering Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Qianyi Liang
- Center for Materials Synthetic Biology, CAS Key Laboratory of Quantitative Engineering Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Yixuan Luo
- Center for Materials Synthetic Biology, CAS Key Laboratory of Quantitative Engineering Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Jianwen Ye
- School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Yin Yu
- Center for Materials Synthetic Biology, CAS Key Laboratory of Quantitative Engineering Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Fei Chen
- Center for Materials Synthetic Biology, CAS Key Laboratory of Quantitative Engineering Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Synthetic Biology, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 518055, China
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3
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Kumar S, Anastassov S, Aoki SK, Falkenstein J, Chang CH, Frei T, Buchmann P, Argast P, Khammash M. Diya - A universal light illumination platform for multiwell plate cultures. iScience 2023; 26:107862. [PMID: 37810238 PMCID: PMC10551653 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.107862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Revised: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent progress in protein engineering has established optogenetics as one of the leading external non-invasive stimulation strategies, with many optogenetic tools being designed for in vivo operation. Characterization and optimization of these tools require a high-throughput and versatile light delivery system targeting micro-titer culture volumes. Here, we present a universal light illumination platform - Diya, compatible with a wide range of cell culture plates and dishes. Diya hosts specially designed features ensuring active thermal management, homogeneous illumination, and minimal light bleedthrough. It offers light induction programming via a user-friendly custom-designed GUI. Through extensive characterization experiments with multiple optogenetic tools in diverse model organisms (bacteria, yeast, and human cell lines), we show that Diya maintains viable conditions for cell cultures undergoing light induction. Finally, we demonstrate an optogenetic strategy for in vivo biomolecular controller operation. With a custom-designed antithetic integral feedback circuit, we exhibit robust perfect adaptation and light-controlled set-point variation using Diya.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sant Kumar
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering (D-BSSE), ETH Zürich, Mattenstrasse 26, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stanislav Anastassov
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering (D-BSSE), ETH Zürich, Mattenstrasse 26, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stephanie K. Aoki
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering (D-BSSE), ETH Zürich, Mattenstrasse 26, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Johannes Falkenstein
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering (D-BSSE), ETH Zürich, Mattenstrasse 26, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ching-Hsiang Chang
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering (D-BSSE), ETH Zürich, Mattenstrasse 26, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Timothy Frei
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering (D-BSSE), ETH Zürich, Mattenstrasse 26, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Peter Buchmann
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering (D-BSSE), ETH Zürich, Mattenstrasse 26, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Paul Argast
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering (D-BSSE), ETH Zürich, Mattenstrasse 26, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Mustafa Khammash
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering (D-BSSE), ETH Zürich, Mattenstrasse 26, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
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4
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Moschetta M, Vurro V, Sesti V, Bertarelli C, Paternò GM, Lanzani G. Modulation of Mechanosensitive Potassium Channels by a Membrane-targeted Nongenetic Photoswitch. J Phys Chem B 2023; 127:8869-8878. [PMID: 37815392 PMCID: PMC10591468 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.3c04551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
Mechanosensitive ion channels are present in the plasma membranes of all cells. They play a fundamental role in converting mechanical stimuli into biochemical signals and are involved in several physiological processes such as touch sensation, hearing, and blood pressure regulation. This protein family includes TWIK-related arachidonic acid-stimulated K+ channel (TRAAK), which is specifically implicated in the maintenance of the resting membrane potential and in the regulation of a variety of important neurobiological functions. Dysregulation of these channels has been linked to various diseases, including blindness, epilepsy, cardiac arrhythmia, and chronic pain. For these reasons, mechanosensitive channels are targets for the treatment of several diseases. Here, we propose a new approach to investigate TRAAK ion channel modulation that is based on nongenetic photostimulation. We employed an amphiphilic azobenzene, named Ziapin2. In the dark, Ziapin2 preferentially dwells in the plasma membrane, causing a thinning of the membrane. Upon light irradiation, an isomerization occurs, breaking the dimers and inducing membrane relaxation. To study the effect of Ziapin2 on the mechanosensitive channels, we expressed human TRAAK (hTRAAK) channels in HEK293T cells. We observed that Ziapin2 insertion in the membrane is able per se to recruit hTRAAK, permitting the exit of K+ ions outside the cells with a consequent hyperpolarization of the cell membrane. During light stimulation, membrane relaxation induces hTRAAK closure, generating a consistent and compensatory depolarization. These results add information to the Ziapin2 mechanism and suggest that membrane deformation can be a tool for the nonselective modulation of mechanosensitive channels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Moschetta
- Center
for Nano Science and Technology, Istituto
Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Rubattino, 81, 20134 Milano, Italy
| | - Vito Vurro
- Center
for Nano Science and Technology, Istituto
Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Rubattino, 81, 20134 Milano, Italy
| | - Valentina Sesti
- Center
for Nano Science and Technology, Istituto
Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Rubattino, 81, 20134 Milano, Italy
- Department
of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Chiara Bertarelli
- Center
for Nano Science and Technology, Istituto
Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Rubattino, 81, 20134 Milano, Italy
- Department
of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Maria Paternò
- Center
for Nano Science and Technology, Istituto
Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Rubattino, 81, 20134 Milano, Italy
- Department
of Physics, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Guglielmo Lanzani
- Center
for Nano Science and Technology, Istituto
Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Rubattino, 81, 20134 Milano, Italy
- Department
of Physics, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy
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5
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Li J, Wu C, Zeng M, Zhang Y, Wei D, Sun J, Fan H. Functional material-mediated wireless physical stimulation for neuro-modulation and regeneration. J Mater Chem B 2023; 11:9056-9083. [PMID: 37649427 DOI: 10.1039/d3tb01354e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
Nerve injuries and neurological diseases remain intractable clinical challenges. Despite the advantages of stem cell therapy in treating neurological disorders, uncontrollable cell fates and loss of cell function in vivo are still challenging. Recently, increasing attention has been given to the roles of external physical signals, such as electricity and ultrasound, in regulating stem cell fate as well as activating or inhibiting neuronal activity, which provides new insights for the treatment of neurological disorders. However, direct physical stimulations in vivo are short in accuracy and safety. Functional materials that can absorb energy from a specific physical field exerted in a wireless way and then release another localized physical signal hold great advantages in mediating noninvasive or minimally invasive accurate indirect physical stimulations to promote the therapeutic effect on neurological disorders. In this review, the mechanism by which various physical signals regulate stem cell fate and neuronal activity is summarized. Based on these concepts, the approaches of using functional materials to mediate indirect wireless physical stimulation for neuro-modulation and regeneration are systematically reviewed. We expect that this review will contribute to developing wireless platforms for neural stimulation as an assistance for the treatment of neurological diseases and injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jialu Li
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, Sichuan, China.
| | - Chengheng Wu
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, Sichuan, China.
- Institute of Regulatory Science for Medical Devices, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, Sichuan, China
| | - Mingze Zeng
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, Sichuan, China.
| | - Yusheng Zhang
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, Sichuan, China.
| | - Dan Wei
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, Sichuan, China.
| | - Jing Sun
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, Sichuan, China.
| | - Hongsong Fan
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, Sichuan, China.
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6
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Vurro V, Moschetta M, Bondelli G, Sardar S, Magni A, Sesti V, Paternò GM, Bertarelli C, D'Andrea C, Lanzani G. Membrane Order Effect on the Photoresponse of an Organic Transducer. MEMBRANES 2023; 13:membranes13050538. [PMID: 37233599 DOI: 10.3390/membranes13050538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/19/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Non-genetic photostimulation, which allows for control over cellular activity via the use of cell-targeting phototransducers, is widely used nowadays to study and modulate/restore biological functions. This approach relies on non-covalent interactions between the phototransducer and the cell membrane, thus implying that cell conditions and membrane status can dictate the effectiveness of the method. For instance, although immortalized cell lines are traditionally used in photostimulation experiments, it has been demonstrated that the number of passages they undergo is correlated to the worsening of cell conditions. In principle, this could impact cell responsivity against exogenous stressors, including photostimulation. However, these aspects have usually been neglected in previous experiments. In this work, we investigated whether cell passages could affect membrane properties (such as polarity and fluidity). We applied optical spectroscopy and electrophysiological measurements in two different biological models: (i) an epithelial immortalized cell line (HEK-293T cells) and (ii) liposomes. Different numbers of cell passages were compared to a different morphology in the liposome membrane. We demonstrated that cell membranes show a significant decrease in ordered domains upon increasing the passage number. Furthermore, we observed that cell responsivity against external stressors is markedly different between aged and non-aged cells. Firstly, we noted that the thermal-disordering effect that is usually observed in membranes is more evident in aged cells than in non-aged ones. We then set up a photostimulation experiment by using a membrane-targeted azobenzene as a phototransducer (Ziapin2). As an example of a functional consequence of such a condition, we showed that the rate of isomerization of an intramembrane molecular transducer is significantly impaired in aged cells. The reduction in the photoisomerization rate translates in cells with a sustained reduction of the Ziapin2-related hyperpolarization of the membrane potential and an overall increase in the molecule fluorescence. Overall, our results suggest that membrane stimulation strongly depends on membrane order, highlighting the importance of cell passage during the characterization of the stimulation tools. This study can shine light on the correlation between aging and the development of diseases driven by membrane degradation as well as on the different cell responsivities against external stressors, such as temperature and photostimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vito Vurro
- Center for Nano Science and Technology @PoliMi, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 20134 Milan, Italy
| | - Matteo Moschetta
- Center for Nano Science and Technology @PoliMi, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 20134 Milan, Italy
| | - Gaia Bondelli
- Center for Nano Science and Technology @PoliMi, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 20134 Milan, Italy
- Department of Physics, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Samim Sardar
- Center for Nano Science and Technology @PoliMi, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 20134 Milan, Italy
| | - Arianna Magni
- Center for Nano Science and Technology @PoliMi, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 20134 Milan, Italy
- Department of Physics, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Valentina Sesti
- Center for Nano Science and Technology @PoliMi, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 20134 Milan, Italy
- Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Maria Paternò
- Center for Nano Science and Technology @PoliMi, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 20134 Milan, Italy
- Department of Physics, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Chiara Bertarelli
- Center for Nano Science and Technology @PoliMi, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 20134 Milan, Italy
- Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Cosimo D'Andrea
- Center for Nano Science and Technology @PoliMi, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 20134 Milan, Italy
- Department of Physics, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Guglielmo Lanzani
- Center for Nano Science and Technology @PoliMi, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 20134 Milan, Italy
- Department of Physics, Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
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7
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Production of kidney organoids arranged around single ureteric bud trees, and containing endogenous blood vessels, solely from embryonic stem cells. Sci Rep 2022; 12:12573. [PMID: 35869233 PMCID: PMC9307805 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-16768-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
There is intense worldwide effort in generating kidney organoids from pluripotent stem cells, for research, for disease modelling and, perhaps, for making transplantable organs. Organoids generated from pluripotent stem cells (PSC) possess accurate micro-anatomy, but they lack higher-organization. This is a problem, especially for transplantation, as such organoids will not be able to perform their physiological functions. In this study, we develop a method for generating murine kidney organoids with improved higher-order structure, through stages using chimaeras of ex-fetu and PSC-derived cells to a system that works entirely from embryonic stem cells. These organoids have nephrons organised around a single ureteric bud tree and also make vessels, with the endothelial network approaching podocytes.
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8
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Sun S, Liang HW, Wang H, Zou Q. Light-Triggered Self-Assembly of Peptide Nanoparticles into Nanofibers in Living Cells through Molecular Conformation Changes and H-Bond Interactions. ACS NANO 2022; 16:18978-18989. [PMID: 36354757 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.2c07895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Controlled self-assembly has attracted extensive interest in biological and nanotechnological applications. Enzymatic or biocatalytic triggered self-assembly is widely used for the diagnostic and prognostic marker in different pathologies because of their nanostructures and biological effects. However, it remains a great challenge to control the self-assembly of peptides in living cells with a high degree of spatial and temporal precision. Here we demonstrate a light-triggered platform that enables spatiotemporal control of self-assembly from nanoparticles into nanofibers in living cells through subtle molecular conformational changes and internal H-bonding interactions. The platform contained 3-methylene-2-(quinolin-8-yl) isoindolin-1-one, which acts as the light-controlled unit to disrupt the hydrophilic/lipophilic balance through the change of molecular conformation, and a peptide that can be a faster recombinant to assemble via H-bonding interactions. The process has good biocompatibility because it does not involve waste generation or oxygen consumption; moreover, the assembly rate constant was fast and up to 0.17 min-1. It is applied to the regulation of molecular assembly in living cells. As such, our findings demonstrate that light-triggered controllable assembly can be applied for initiative regulating cellular behaviors in living systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si Sun
- National Engineering Research Center of Immunological Products, Third Military Medical University, Gaotanyan No. 30, Shapingba District, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Hong-Wen Liang
- CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology (NCNST), No. 11 Beiyitiao, Zhongguancun, Haidian District, Beijing100190, China
| | - Hao Wang
- CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology (NCNST), No. 11 Beiyitiao, Zhongguancun, Haidian District, Beijing100190, China
| | - Quanming Zou
- National Engineering Research Center of Immunological Products, Third Military Medical University, Gaotanyan No. 30, Shapingba District, Chongqing, 400038, China
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9
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Sadeghi A, Afshari E, Hashemi M, Kaplan D, Mozafari M. Brainy Biomaterials: Latest Advances in Smart Biomaterials to Develop the Next Generation of Neural Interfaces. CURRENT OPINION IN BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cobme.2022.100420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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10
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Ferreira MJS, Mancini FE, Humphreys PA, Ogene L, Buckley M, Domingos MAN, Kimber SJ. Pluripotent stem cells for skeletal tissue engineering. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2022; 42:774-793. [PMID: 34488516 DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2021.1968785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Here, we review the use of human pluripotent stem cells for skeletal tissue engineering. A number of approaches have been used for generating cartilage and bone from both human embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells. These range from protocols relying on intrinsic cell interactions and signals from co-cultured cells to those attempting to recapitulate the series of steps occurring during mammalian skeletal development. The importance of generating authentic tissues rather than just differentiated cells is emphasized and enabling technologies for doing this are reported. We also review the different methods for characterization of skeletal cells and constructs at the tissue and single-cell level, and indicate newer resources not yet fully utilized in this field. There have been many challenges in this research area but the technologies to overcome these are beginning to appear, often adopted from related fields. This makes it more likely that cost-effective and efficacious human pluripotent stem cell-engineered constructs may become available for skeletal repair in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel J S Ferreira
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering & Henry Royce Institute, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Fabrizio E Mancini
- Division of Cell Matrix Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Paul A Humphreys
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering & Henry Royce Institute, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
- Division of Cell Matrix Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Leona Ogene
- Division of Cell Matrix Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Michael Buckley
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Marco A N Domingos
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering & Henry Royce Institute, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Susan J Kimber
- Division of Cell Matrix Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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11
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Optogenetically Engineered Neurons Differentiated from Human SH-SY5Y Cells Survived and Expressed ChR2 in 3D Hydrogel. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10071534. [PMID: 35884839 PMCID: PMC9313127 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10071534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The cases of brain degenerative disease will rise as the human population ages. Current treatments have a transient effect and lack an investigative system that is physiologically relevant for testing. There is evidence suggesting optogenetic stimulation is a potential strategy; however, an in vitro disease and optogenetic model requires a three-dimensional microenvironment. Alginate is a promising material for tissue and optogenetic engineering. Although it is bioinert, alginate hydrogel is transparent and therefore allows optical penetration for stimulation. In this study, alginate was functionalized with arginine-glycine-aspartate acid (RGD) to serve as a 3D platform for encapsulation of human SH-SY5Y cells, which were optogenetically modified and characterized. The RGD-alginate hydrogels were tested for swelling and degradation. Prior to encapsulation, the cells were assessed for neuronal expression and optical-stimulation response. The results showed that RGD-alginate possessed a consistent swelling ratio of 18% on day 7, and degradation remained between 3.7−5% throughout 14 days. Optogenetically modified SH-SY5Y cells were highly viable (>85%) after lentiviral transduction and neuronal differentiation. The cells demonstrated properties of functional neurons, developing beta III tubulin (TuJ1)-positive long neurites, forming neural networks, and expressing vGlut2. Action potentials were produced upon optical stimulation. The neurons derived from human SH-SY5Y cells were successfully genetically modified and encapsulated; they survived and expressed ChR2 in an RGD-alginate hydrogel system.
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12
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Månsson LK, Pitenis AA, Wilson MZ. Extracellular Optogenetics at the Interface of Synthetic Biology and Materials Science. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:903982. [PMID: 35774061 PMCID: PMC9237228 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.903982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
We review fundamental mechanisms and applications of OptoGels: hydrogels with light-programmable properties endowed by photoswitchable proteins (“optoproteins”) found in nature. Light, as the primary source of energy on earth, has driven evolution to develop highly-tuned functionalities, such as phototropism and circadian entrainment. These functions are mediated through a growing family of optoproteins that respond to the entire visible spectrum ranging from ultraviolet to infrared by changing their structure to transmit signals inside of cells. In a recent series of articles, engineers and biochemists have incorporated optoproteins into a variety of extracellular systems, endowing them with photocontrollability. While other routes exist for dynamically controlling material properties, light-sensitive proteins have several distinct advantages, including precise spatiotemporal control, reversibility, substrate selectivity, as well as biodegradability and biocompatibility. Available conjugation chemistries endow OptoGels with a combinatorially large design space determined by the set of optoproteins and polymer networks. These combinations result in a variety of tunable material properties. Despite their potential, relatively little of the OptoGel design space has been explored. Here, we aim to summarize innovations in this emerging field and highlight potential future applications of these next generation materials. OptoGels show great promise in applications ranging from mechanobiology, to 3D cell and organoid engineering, and programmable cell eluting materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa K. Månsson
- Materials Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, United States
| | - Angela A. Pitenis
- Materials Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, United States
- Center for BioEngineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, United States
- *Correspondence: Angela A. Pitenis, ; Maxwell Z. Wilson,
| | - Maxwell Z. Wilson
- Center for BioEngineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, United States
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, United States
- Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, United States
- *Correspondence: Angela A. Pitenis, ; Maxwell Z. Wilson,
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O’Connor C, Brady E, Zheng Y, Moore E, Stevens KR. Engineering the multiscale complexity of vascular networks. NATURE REVIEWS. MATERIALS 2022; 7:702-716. [PMID: 35669037 PMCID: PMC9154041 DOI: 10.1038/s41578-022-00447-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The survival of vertebrate organisms depends on highly regulated delivery of oxygen and nutrients through vascular networks that pervade nearly all tissues in the body. Dysregulation of these vascular networks is implicated in many common human diseases such as hypertension, coronary artery disease, diabetes and cancer. Therefore, engineers have sought to create vascular networks within engineered tissues for applications such as regenerative therapies, human disease modelling and pharmacological testing. Yet engineering vascular networks has historically remained difficult, owing to both incomplete understanding of vascular structure and technical limitations for vascular fabrication. This Review highlights the materials advances that have enabled transformative progress in vascular engineering by ushering in new tools for both visualizing and building vasculature. New methods such as bioprinting, organoids and microfluidic systems are discussed, which have enabled the fabrication of 3D vascular topologies at a cellular scale with lumen perfusion. These approaches to vascular engineering are categorized into technology-driven and nature-driven approaches. Finally, the remaining knowledge gaps, emerging frontiers and opportunities for this field are highlighted, including the steps required to replicate the multiscale complexity of vascular networks found in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colleen O’Connor
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Seattle, WA USA
| | - Eileen Brady
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Seattle, WA USA
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA
| | - Ying Zheng
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Seattle, WA USA
- Center for Cardiovascular Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA
| | - Erika Moore
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL USA
| | - Kelly R. Stevens
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Seattle, WA USA
- Center for Cardiovascular Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA USA
- Brotman Baty Institute, Seattle, WA USA
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14
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Wong CW, Ko LN, Huang HJ, Yang CS, Hsu SH. Engineered Bacteriorhodopsin May Induce Lung Cancer Cell Cycle Arrest and Suppress Their Proliferation and Migration. Molecules 2021; 26:7344. [PMID: 34885925 PMCID: PMC8659022 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26237344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Revised: 11/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Highly expressible bacteriorhodopsin (HEBR) is a light-triggered protein (optogenetic protein) that has seven transmembrane regions with retinal bound as their chromophore to sense light. HEBR has controllable photochemical properties and regulates activity on proton pumping. In this study, we generated HEBR protein and incubated with lung cancer cell lines (A549 and H1299) to evaluate if there was a growth-inhibitory effect with or without light illumination. The data revealed that the HEBR protein suppressed cell proliferation and induced the G0/G1 cell cycle arrest without light illumination. Moreover, the migration abilities of A549 and H1299 cells were reduced by ~17% and ~31% after incubation with HEBR (40 μg/mL) for 4 h. The Snail-1 gene expression level of the A549 cells was significantly downregulated by ~50% after the treatment of HEBR. In addition, HEBR significantly inhibited the gene expression of Sox-2 and Oct-4 in H1299 cells. These results suggested that the HEBR protein may inhibit cell proliferation and cell cycle progression of lung cancer cells, reduce their migration activity, and suppress some stemness-related genes. These findings also suggested the potential of HEBR protein to regulate the growth and migration of tumor cells, which may offer the possibility for an anticancer drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chui-Wei Wong
- Institute of Polymer Science and Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan; (C.-W.W.); (H.-J.H.)
| | - Ling-Ning Ko
- Department of Biochemical Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan; (L.-N.K.); (C.-S.Y.)
| | - Hung-Jin Huang
- Institute of Polymer Science and Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan; (C.-W.W.); (H.-J.H.)
| | - Chii-Shen Yang
- Department of Biochemical Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan; (L.-N.K.); (C.-S.Y.)
| | - Shan-hui Hsu
- Institute of Polymer Science and Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan; (C.-W.W.); (H.-J.H.)
- Institute of Cellular and System Medicine, National Health Research Institutes, Miaoli 35053, Taiwan
- Research and Development Center for Medical Devices, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
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15
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Du N, Ye F, Sun J, Liu K. Stimuli-Responsive Natural Proteins and Their Applications. Chembiochem 2021; 23:e202100416. [PMID: 34773331 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202100416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Revised: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Natural proteins are essential biomacromolecules that fulfill versatile functions in the living organism, such as their usage as cytoskeleton, nutriment transporter, homeostasis controller, catalyzer, or immune guarder. Due to the excellent mechanical properties and good biocompatibility/biodegradability, natural protein-based biomaterials are well equipped for prospective applications in various fields. Among these natural proteins, stimuli-responsive proteins can be reversibly and precisely manipulated on demand, rendering the protein-based biomaterials promising candidates for numerous applications, including disease detection, drug delivery, bio-sensing, and regenerative medicine. Therefore, we present some typical natural proteins with diverse physical stimuli-responsive properties, including temperature, light, force, electrical, and magnetic sensing in this review. The structure-function mechanism of these proteins is discussed in detail. Finally, we give a summary and perspective for the development of stimuli-responsive proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Du
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou, 325001, P. R. China.,State Key Laboratory of Rare Earth Resource Utilization, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, 130022, P. R. China
| | - Fangfu Ye
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou, 325001, P. R. China
| | - Jing Sun
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Ulm, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081, Ulm, Germany
| | - Kai Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Rare Earth Resource Utilization, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, 130022, P. R. China.,Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, P. R. China
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16
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Lim WK, Kaur P, Huang H, Jo RS, Ramamoorthy A, Ng LF, Suresh J, Maisha FI, Mathuru AS, Tolwinski NS. Optogenetic approaches for understanding homeostatic and degenerative processes in Drosophila. Cell Mol Life Sci 2021; 78:5865-5880. [PMID: 34232330 PMCID: PMC8260576 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-021-03836-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Many organs and tissues have an intrinsic ability to regenerate from a dedicated, tissue-specific stem cell pool. As organisms age, the process of self-regulation or homeostasis begins to slow down with fewer stem cells available for tissue repair. Tissues become more fragile and organs less efficient. This slowdown of homeostatic processes leads to the development of cellular and neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we highlight the recent use and future potential of optogenetic approaches to study homeostasis. Optogenetics uses photosensitive molecules and genetic engineering to modulate cellular activity in vivo, allowing precise experiments with spatiotemporal control. We look at applications of this technology for understanding the mechanisms governing homeostasis and degeneration as applied to widely used model organisms, such as Drosophila melanogaster, where other common tools are less effective or unavailable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Kin Lim
- Science Division, Yale-NUS College, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Prameet Kaur
- Science Division, Yale-NUS College, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Huanyan Huang
- Science Division, Yale-NUS College, Singapore, Singapore
| | | | | | - Li Fang Ng
- Science Division, Yale-NUS College, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jahnavi Suresh
- Science Division, Yale-NUS College, Singapore, Singapore
| | | | - Ajay S Mathuru
- Science Division, Yale-NUS College, Singapore, Singapore
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17
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Jiang Z, Li N, Zhu D, Ren L, Shao Q, Yu K, Yang G. Genetically modified cell sheets in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. Biomaterials 2021; 275:120908. [PMID: 34119885 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2021.120908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Revised: 05/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Genetically modified cell sheet technology is emerging as a promising biomedical tool to deliver therapeutic genes for regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. Virus-based gene transfection and non-viral gene transfection have been used to fabricate genetically modified cell sheets. Preclinical and clinical studies have shown various beneficial effects of genetically modified cell sheets in the regeneration of bone, periodontal tissue, cartilage and nerves, as well as the amelioration of dental implant osseointegration, myocardial infarction, skeletal muscle ischemia and kidney injury. Furthermore, this technology provides a potential treatment option for various hereditary diseases. However, the method has several limitations, such as safety concerns and difficulties in controlling transgene expression. Therefore, recent studies explored efficient and safe gene transfection methods, prolonged and controllable transgene expression and their potential application in personalized and precision medicine. This review summarizes various types of genetically modified cell sheets, preparation procedures, therapeutic applications and possible improvements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiwei Jiang
- The Affiliated Hospital of Stomatology, School of Stomatology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Research of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310006, China
| | - Na Li
- The Affiliated Hospital of Stomatology, School of Stomatology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Research of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310006, China
| | - Danji Zhu
- The Affiliated Hospital of Stomatology, School of Stomatology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Research of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310006, China
| | - Lingfei Ren
- The Affiliated Hospital of Stomatology, School of Stomatology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Research of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310006, China
| | - Qin Shao
- The Affiliated Hospital of Stomatology, School of Stomatology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Research of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310006, China
| | - Ke Yu
- The Affiliated Hospital of Stomatology, School of Stomatology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Research of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310006, China
| | - Guoli Yang
- The Affiliated Hospital of Stomatology, School of Stomatology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedical Research of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310006, China.
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18
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Baumschlager A, Khammash M. Synthetic Biological Approaches for Optogenetics and Tools for Transcriptional Light-Control in Bacteria. Adv Biol (Weinh) 2021; 5:e2000256. [PMID: 34028214 DOI: 10.1002/adbi.202000256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Light has become established as a tool not only to visualize and investigate but also to steer biological systems. This review starts by discussing the unique features that make light such an effective control input in biology. It then gives an overview of how light-control came to progress, starting with photoactivatable compounds and leading up to current genetic implementations using optogenetic approaches. The review then zooms in on optogenetics, focusing on photosensitive proteins, which form the basis for optogenetic engineering using synthetic biological approaches. As the regulation of transcription provides a highly versatile means for steering diverse biological functions, the focus of this review then shifts to transcriptional light regulators, which are presented in the biotechnologically highly relevant model organism Escherichia coli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armin Baumschlager
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering (D-BSSE), ETH-Zürich, Mattenstrasse 26, Basel, 4058, Switzerland
| | - Mustafa Khammash
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering (D-BSSE), ETH-Zürich, Mattenstrasse 26, Basel, 4058, Switzerland
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19
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Dixon TA, Williams TC, Pretorius IS. Sensing the future of bio-informational engineering. Nat Commun 2021; 12:388. [PMID: 33452260 PMCID: PMC7810845 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-20764-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The practices of synthetic biology are being integrated into 'multiscale' designs enabling two-way communication across organic and inorganic information substrates in biological, digital and cyber-physical system integrations. Novel applications of 'bio-informational' engineering will arise in environmental monitoring, precision agriculture, precision medicine and next-generation biomanufacturing. Potential developments include sentinel plants for environmental monitoring and autonomous bioreactors that respond to biosensor signaling. As bio-informational understanding progresses, both natural and engineered biological systems will need to be reimagined as cyber-physical architectures. We propose that a multiple length scale taxonomy will assist in rationalizing and enabling this transformative development in engineering biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas A Dixon
- Department of Modern History, Politics and International Relations, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia.
| | - Thomas C Williams
- Department of Molecular Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Synthetic Biology, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
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20
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Hopkins E, Valois E, Stull A, Le K, Pitenis AA, Wilson MZ. An Optogenetic Platform to Dynamically Control the Stiffness of Collagen Hydrogels. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2020; 7:408-414. [PMID: 33382239 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.0c01488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The extracellular matrix (ECM) comprises a meshwork of biomacromolecules whose composition, architecture, and macroscopic properties, such as mechanics, instruct cell fate decisions during development and disease progression. Current methods implemented in mechanotransduction studies either fail to capture real-time mechanical dynamics or utilize synthetic polymers that lack the fibrillar nature of their natural counterparts. Here we present an optogenetic-inspired tool to construct light-responsive ECM mimetic hydrogels comprised exclusively of natural ECM proteins. Optogenetic tools offer seconds temporal resolution and submicron spatial resolution, permitting researchers to probe cell signaling dynamics with unprecedented precision. Here we demonstrated our approach of using SNAP-tag and its thiol-targeted substrate, benzylguanine-maleimide, to covalently attach blue-light-responsive proteins to collagen hydrogels. The resulting material (OptoGel), in addition to encompassing the native biological activity of collagen, stiffens upon exposure to blue light and softens in the dark. Optogels have immediate use in dissecting the cellular response to acute mechanical inputs and may also have applications in next-generation biointerfacing prosthetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Hopkins
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Eric Valois
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States.,Center for BioEngineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States.,Materials Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Alanna Stull
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Kristy Le
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Angela A Pitenis
- Materials Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Maxwell Z Wilson
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States.,Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States.,Center for BioEngineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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