Novel pyrazole-based COX-2 inhibitors as potential anticancer agents: Design, synthesis, cytotoxic effect against resistant cancer cells, cell cycle arrest, apoptosis induction and dual EGFR/Topo-1 inhibition

Medicinal plants as a potential resource for the discovery of novel structures towards cancer drug resistance treatment

Despite extensive research in chemotherapy, global cancer concerns persist, exacerbated by the challenge of drug resistance, which imposes economic and medical burdens. Natural compounds, particularly secondary metabolites from medicinal plants, present promising avenues for overcoming cancer drug resistance due to their diverse structures and essential pharmacological effects. This review provides a comprehensive exploration of cancer cell resistance mechanisms and target actions for reversing resistance and highlights the in vitro and in vivo efficacy of noteworthy alkaloids, flavonoids, and other compounds, emphasizing their potential as therapeutic agents. The molecular properties supporting ligand interactions are thoroughly examined, providing a robust theoretical foundation. The review concludes by discussing methods including quantitative structure-activity relationships and molecular docking, offering insights into screening potential candidates. Current trends in clinical treatment, contributing to a holistic understanding of the multifaceted approaches to address cancer drug resistance are also outlined.

Selective COX-2 inhibitors as anticancer agents: a patent review (2018-2023)

INTRODUCTION

COX-2 is a crucial enzyme in the manufacture of prostaglandins. The enzyme's metabolites might have an important function as regulators of the inflammatory response and other medical conditions such as cancer. Selective COX-2 inhibitors are believed to enhance or reverse the response of cancer chemotherapeutics.

AREAS COVERED

This study addresses the chemical structures as well as the antitumor activity of new COX-2 inhibitors produced in the recent five years, aiming to provide an insight into the mechanism of COX-2 induced PGE2 powerful signal in cancer development.

EXPERT OPINION

The significance of selective COX-2 inhibitors as an efficient superfamily of compounds with anti-inflammatory, anti-Alzheimer's, anti-Parkinson's disease, and anticancer properties has piqued the passion of academics in the field of drug development. Long-term usage of selective COX-2 inhibitors, such as celecoxib has been proven in clinical trials to lower the incidence of several human malignancies. Furthermore, celecoxib has the potential to greatly increase the effectiveness of chemotherapy. Our extensive understanding of selective COX-2 inhibitor SAR may aid in the development of safer and more effective selective COX-2 inhibitors as cancer chemopreventive agents. This review focuses on the different structural classes of selective COX-2 inhibitors, with a particular emphasis on their SAR.

Design, synthesis, antineoplastic activity of new pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine derivatives as dual CDK2/GSK3β kinase inhibitors; molecular docking study, and ADME prediction

In the current study, novel pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine derivatives 5a-h were designed and synthesized as targeted anti-cancer agents through dual CDK2/GSK-3β inhibition. The designed compounds demonstrated moderate to potent activity on the evaluated cancer cell lines (MCF-7 and T-47D). Compounds 5c and 5 g showed the most promising cytotoxic activity against the tested cell lines surpassing that of the used reference standard; staurosporine. On the other hand, both compounds showed good safety and tolerability on normal fibroblast cell line (MCR5). The final compounds 5c and 5 g showed a promising dual CDK2/GSK-3β inhibitory activity with IC50 of 0.244 and 0.128 μM, respectively, against CDK2, and IC50 of 0.317 and 0.160 μM, respectively, against GSK-3β. Investigating the effect of compounds 5c and 5 g on CDK2 and GSK-3β downstream cascades showed that they reduced the relative cellular content of phosphorylated RB1 and β-catenin compared to that in the untreated MCF-7 cells. Moreover, compounds 5c and 5 g showed a reasonable selective inhibition against the target kinases CDK2/GSK-3β in comparison to a set of seven off-target kinases. Furthermore, the most potent compound 5 g caused cell cycle arrest at the S phase in MCF-7 cells preventing the cells' progression to G2/M phase inducing cell apoptosis. Molecular docking studies showed that the final pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine derivatives have analogous binding modes in the target kinases interacting with the hinge region key amino acids. Molecular dynamics simulations confirmed the predicted binding mode by molecular docking. Moreover, in silico predictions indicated their favorable physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties in addition to their promising cytotoxic activity.

Sulindac exhibits anti-proliferative and anti-invasive effects in uterine serous carcinoma cells

PURPOSE

Uterine serous carcinoma (USC) is a highly aggressive and frequently recurring subtype of endometrial cancer with limited treatment options for advanced or recurrent stages. Sulindac, a classic non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, has demonstrated anti-tumor activity in several pre-clinical tumor models. This study aims to evaluate the effect of sulindac on cell proliferation and invasion in USC cells.

METHODS

Human USC cell lines ARK-1 and SPEC2 were treated with different concentrations of sulindac. Cell proliferation was assessed using MTT and colony formation assays. ELISA assays measured cellular stress, cleaved caspase 3 activity, antioxidant ability, and adhesion. Cell cycle arrest was evaluated by Cellometer. The invasive capability was detected by wound healing assay. Western blotting was used to analyze the changes in protein expression induced by sulindac.

RESULTS

Exposure to sulindac decreased cellular viability in a dose-dependent manner in ARK-1 and SPEC2 cells. Sulindac effectively inhibited cell cycle progression, increased cellular stress, caused apoptosis, and reduced cell adhesion and invasion in USC cells. Additionally, sulindac decreased the expression of COX-2 and blocked phosphorylation of NF-κB induced by TNF-α.

CONCLUSION

Sulindac is a potential therapeutic agent for USC that deserves further exploration in pre-clinical studies and potentially future clinical trials.

Structural insights and cytotoxicity evaluation of benz[e]indole pyrazolyl-substituted amides

Five new compounds of benz[e]indole pyrazolyl-substituted amides (2a-e) were synthesised in low to good yields via the direct amide-coupling reaction between a pyrazolyl derivative containing a carboxylic acid and several amine substrates. The molecular structures were determined by various spectroscopic methods, such as NMR (1H, 13C and 19F), FT-IR and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). X-ray crystallographic analysis on the 4-fluorobenzyl derivative (2d) reveals the amide-O atom to reside to the opposite side of the molecule to the pyrazolyl-N and pyrrolyl-N atoms; in the molecular packing, helical chains feature amide-N‒H⋯N(pyrrolyl) hydrogen bonds. Density-functional theory (DFT) at the geometry-optimisation B3LYP/6-31G(d) level on the full series shows general agreement with the experimental structures. While the LUMO in each case is spread over the benz[e]indole pyrazolyl moiety, the HOMO spreads over the halogenated benzo-substituted amide moieties or is localised near the benz[e]indole pyrazolyl moieties. The MTT assay showed that 2e, exhibited the highest toxicity against a human colorectal carcinoma (HCT 116 cell line) without appreciable toxicity towards the normal human colon fibroblast (CCD-18Co cell line). Based on molecular docking calculations, the probable cytotoxic mechanism of 2e is through the DNA minor groove binding.

Exploring the Potential Biological Activities of Pyrazole-Based Schiff Bases as Anti-Diabetic, Anti-Alzheimer's, Anti-Inflammatory, and Cytotoxic Agents: In Vitro Studies with Computational Predictions

In this innovative research, we aim to reveal pyrazole-based Schiff bases as new multi-target agents. In this context, we re-synthesized three sets of pyrazole-based Schiff bases, 5a-f, 6a-f, and 7a-f, to evaluate their biological applications. The data from in vitro biological assays (including antioxidant and scavenging activities, anti-diabetes, anti-Alzheimer's, and anti-inflammatory properties) of the pyrazole-based Schiff bases 5a-f, 6a-f, and 7a-f showed that the six pyrazole-based Schiff bases 5a, 5d, 5e, 5f, 7a, and 7f possess the highest biological properties among the compounds evaluated. The cytotoxicity against lung (A549) and colon (Caco-2) human cancer types, as well as normal lung (WI-38) cell lines, was evaluated. The data from the cytotoxicity investigation demonstrated that the three Schiff bases 5d, 5e, and 7a are active against lung (A549) cells, while the two Schiff bases 5e and 7a exhibited the highest cytotoxicity towards colon (Caco-2) cells. Additionally, the enzymatic activities against caspase-3 and Bcl-2 of the six pyrazole-based Schiff bases 5a, 5d, 5e, 5f, 7a, and 7f were evaluated. Furthermore, we assessed the in silico absorption, distribution, metabolism, and toxicity (ADMT) properties of the more potent pyrazole-based Schiff bases. After modifying the structures of the six pyrazole-based Schiff bases, we plan to further extend the studies in the future.

Selected Electrosynthesis of 3-Aminopyrazoles from α,β-Alkynic Hydrazones and Secondary Amines

An available and simple electromediated cyclization method for 3-amino-substituted pyrazoles by using α,β-alkynic hydrazone and secondary amine is described. The strategy utilizes KI as an electrolyte in an undivided cell with a constant current, generating the desired products in moderate-to-good yield. The method features selective amination at the 3-position of the pyrazole skeleton. The results indicate that α,β-alkynic hydrazones functionalized with aromatic groups and secondary amines functionalized with electron-rich groups were better tolerated in this transformation.

Dual Anti-Inflammatory and Anticancer Activity of Novel 1,5-Diaryl Pyrazole Derivatives: Molecular Modeling, Synthesis, In Vitro Activity, and Dynamics Study

A series of novel 1,5-diaryl pyrazole derivatives targeting the COX enzyme were designed by combined ligand and structure-based approach. The designed molecules were then further subjected to ADMET and molecular docking studies. Out of 34 designed compounds, the top-10 molecules from the computation studies were synthesized, characterized, and evaluated for COX-2 inhibition and anti-cancer activity. Initially, the target compounds were screened for the protein denaturation assay. The results of the top-five molecules T2, T3, T5, T6, and T9 were further subjected to in vitro COX-2 enzymatic assay and anti-cancer activity. As far as COX-2 inhibitory activity is considered, two compounds, T3 and T5, exhibited the half maximum inhibitory concentration (IC50) at 0.781 µM and 0.781 µM respectively. Further, the two compounds T3 and T5, when evaluated for COX-1 inhibition, exhibited excellent inhibitory activity with T3 IC50 of 4.655μM and T5 with IC50 of 5.596 μM. The compound T5 showed more significant human COX-2 inhibition, with a selectivity index of 7.16, when compared with T3, which had a selectivity index of 5.96. Further, in vitro anti-cancer activity was screened against two cancer cell lines in which compounds T2 and T3 were active against A549 cell lines and T6 was active against the HepG2 cell line. Stronger binding energy was found by comparing MM-PBSA simulations with molecular docking, which suggests that compounds T3 and T5 have a better possibility of being effective compounds, in which T5 showed higher binding affinity. The results suggest that these compounds have the potential to develop effective COX-2 inhibitors as anti-cancer agents.

Development of new thieno[2,3-d]pyrimidines as dual EGFR and STAT3 inhibitors endowed with anticancer and pro-apoptotic activities

In part due to the resilience of cellular feedback pathways that develop therapeutic resistance to targeting the EGFR alone, using EGFR inhibitors alone was demonstrated to be unsuccessful in clinical trials. The over-activation of the signal transducer/activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) during the administration of an EGFR inhibitor is expected to play a substantial part in the failure and resistance of EGFR inhibitor treatment. Therein, we proposed a hypothesis that induced STAT3-mediated resistance to EGFR inhibition therapy could be addressed by a dual inhibition of EGFR and STAT3 method. To this end, we tried to discover new thieno[2,3-d]pyrimidine derivatives "5a-o". Results from the screening on A549 and MCF7 cancer cell lines revealed that compounds 5j and 5k showed two-digit nanomolar with appropriate safety towards the WI-38 cell line. The best molecules, 5j and 5k, were subjected to γ-radiation, and their cytotoxic efficacy didn't change after irradiation, demonstrating that not having to use it avoided its side effects. Compounds 5j and 5k demonstrated the highest inhibition when their potency was tested as dual inhibitors on EGFR 67 and 41 nM, respectively, and STAT3 5.52 and 3.34 nM, respectively, proved with in silico molecular docking and dynamic simulation. In light of the results presented above, the capacity of both powerful compounds to alter the cell cycle and initiate the apoptotic process in breast cancer MCF7 cells was investigated. Caspase-8, Bcl-2, Bax and Caspase-9 apoptotic indicators were studied.

Design, synthesis of novel chromene-based scaffolds targeting hepatocellular carcinoma: Cell cycle arrest, cytotoxic effect against resistant cancer cells, apoptosis induction, and c-Src inhibition

New chromene derivatives were synthesized based on 4-(3,4-dimethoxy)-4H-chromene scaffold. All target compounds exhibited cytotoxic activity against HepG2 cells (IC50  = 2.40-141.22 μM). Chromens 5 and 9 showed superior cytotoxicity over staurosporine (IC50  = 18.27 μM) and vinblastine (IC50  = 5.20 μM). c-Src kinase inhibition assay of compounds 5 and 9 displayed the dominant c-Src inhibitory activity of 5 (IC50  = 0.184 μM) over 9 (IC50  = 0.288 μM). The safety of the most potent compound 5 against normal WI-38 cells was confirmed via its IC50 of 115.75 μM comparable with 5-FU (IC50  = 16.28 μM). Moreover, the promising chromene 5 displayed potent cytotoxicity against resistant HepG2 cells with IC50 of 26.03 μM comparable with 5-FU (IC50  = 42.68 μM). The most active chromene 5 arrested the HepG2 cell cycle at the S phase and induced a 29-fold increase in the total number of apoptotic cells indicating pre-G1 apoptosis. The ability of compound 5 to induce apoptosis was supported via elevation of caspase-3, caspase-7, caspase-9 and proapoptotic Bax protein levels in addition to downregulation of the antiapoptotic Bcl2 protein. Molecular docking studies of compound 5 showed good binding interaction pattern inside c-Src kinase enzyme active site.

Recent drug design strategies and identification of key heterocyclic scaffolds for promising anticancer targets

Cancer, a noncommunicable disease, is the leading cause of mortality worldwide and is anticipated to rise by 75% in the next two decades, reaching approximately 25 million cases. Traditional cancer treatments, such as radiotherapy and surgery, have shown limited success in reducing cancer incidence. As a result, the focus of cancer chemotherapy has switched to the development of novel small molecule antitumor agents as an alternate strategy for combating and managing cancer rates. Heterocyclic compounds are such agents that bind to specific residues in target proteins, inhibiting their function and potentially providing cancer treatment. This review focuses on privileged heterocyclic pharmacophores with potent activity against carbonic anhydrases and kinases, which are important anticancer targets. Evaluation of ongoing pre-clinical and clinical research of heterocyclic compounds with potential therapeutic value against a variety of malignancies as well as the provision of a concise summary of the role of heterocyclic scaffolds in various chemotherapy protocols have also been discussed. The main objective of the article is to highlight key heterocyclic scaffolds involved in recent anticancer drug design that demands further attention from the drug development community to find more effective and safer targeted small-molecule anticancer agents.

Epidermal growth factor receptor dual-target inhibitors as a novel therapy for cancer: A review

Overexpression of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) has been linked to several human cancers, including esophageal cancer, pancreatic cancer, anal cancer, breast cancer, and lung cancer, particularly non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Therefore, EGFR has emerged as a critical target for treating solid tumors. Many 1st-, 2nd-, 3rd-, and 4th-generation EGFR single-target inhibitors with clinical efficacy have been designed and synthesized in recent years. Drug resistance caused by EGFR mutations has posed a significant challenge to the large-scale clinical application of EGFR single-target inhibitors and the discovery of novel EGFR inhibitors. Therapeutic methods for overcoming multipoint EGFR mutations are still needed in medicine. EGFR dual-target inhibitors are more promising than single-target inhibitors as they have a lower risk of drug resistance, higher efficacy, lower dosage, and fewer adverse events. EGFR dual-target inhibitors have been developed sequentially to date, providing new options for remission in patients with previously untreatable malignancies and laying the groundwork for a future generation of compounds. This paper introduces the EGFR family proteins and their synergistic effects with other anticancer targets, and provides a comprehensive review of the development of EGFR dual-target inhibitors in cancer, as well as the opportunities and challenges associated with those fields.

New 1,2,3-triazole/1,2,4-triazole hybrids linked to oxime moiety as nitric oxide donor selective COX-2, aromatase, B-RAFV600E and EGFR inhibitors celecoxib analogs: design, synthesis, anti-inflammatory/anti-proliferative activities, apoptosis and molecular modeling study

A new series of bis-triazole 19a-l was synthesised for the purpose of being hybrid molecules with both anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer activities and assessed for cell cycle arrest, NO release. Compounds 19c, 19f, 19h, 19 l exhibited COX-2 selectivity indexes in the range of 18.48 to 49.38 compared to celecoxib S.I. = 21.10), inhibit MCF-7 with IC50 = 9-16 μM compared to tamoxifen (IC50 = 27.9 μM). and showed good inhibitory activity against HEP-3B with IC50 = 4.5-14 μM compared to sorafenib (IC50 = 3.5 μM) (HEP-3B). Moreover, derivatives 19e, 19j, 19k, 19 l inhibit HCT-116 with IC50 = 5.3-13.7 μM compared to 5-FU with IC50 = 4.8 μM (HCT-116). Compounds 19c, 19f, 19h, 19 l showed excellent inhibitory activity against A549 with IC50 = 3-4.5 μM compared to 5-FU with IC50 = 6 μM (A549). Compounds 19c, 19f, 19h, 19 l inhibit aromatase (IC50 of 22.40, 23.20, 22.70, 30.30 μM), EGFR (IC50 of 0.112, 0.205, 0.169 and 0.066 μM) and B-RAFV600E (IC50 of 0.09, 0.06, 0.07 and 0.05 μM).

A novel class of pyrazole analogues as aurora kinase A inhibitor: design, synthesis, and anticancer evaluation

Pyrazole, as a small molecule, was discovered for higher cytotoxicity and affinity towards Aurora-A kinase. Based on these facts, a novel pyrazole substituted at the 4th position was designed, synthesized, and evaluated against MCF-7, MDA-MB-23, and Vero (non-cancerous kidney cell) cell lines. Compounds5hand5eexhibited greater cytotoxicity in the series against MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231, with GI50 values of 0.12 µM and 0.63 µM, respectively, as compared to Imatinib (GI50 values of 16.08 µM and 10.36 µM). All of the compounds displayed selective cytotoxicity against cancer cells but not on normal Vero cells, supporting the design strategy to be a selective anticancer agent. Furthermore, compounds 5h and 5e inhibited Aurora-A kinase with IC50 values of 0.78 µM (4.70-fold) and 1.12 µM (2.84-fold), respectively, as compared to alisertib (IC50 = 3.36 µM). In addition, compound 5h significantly arrested the cell cycle at G2/M (34.89 %, 5.56-fold) and the apoptotic phase (25.04 %, 11.81-fold) compared to the control. It also triggered an increase in early (7.43 %) and late (14.89 %) phase apoptosis compared to vehicle (0.235 and 0.36 %, respectively), causing 37.89-fold higher total apoptosis in the annexin-V assay. These data imply that Aurora-A kinase inhibition may be linked to apoptosis induction and cell cycle arrest. Furthermore, their higher docking score in the study confirmed evidence of Aurora-kinase suppression. It was observed that fluorine and imidazole increased the H-bond and lipophilic interactions with the binding residue. Also, the substitution of electron-rich and lipophilic groups increased hydrophobic interactions. Moreover, the three-atom linkage (CH2NHCH2) expanded compound 5h to fill the cavity. Based on current findings, it is concluded that compounds 5h and 5e with strong Aurora-A kinase suppression may be promising anticancer agents.

Novel 4-(2-arylidenehydrazineyl)thienopyrimidine derivatives as anticancer EGFR inhibitors: Design, synthesis, biological evaluation, kinome selectivity and in silico insights

The current study discovered fifteen new thieno[2,3-d]pyrimidine derivatives with potential anticancer action, including 5a-l, 6, and 7a-b. Results from the NCI screening revealed that compounds 5f-i and 7a significantly inhibited the proliferation of MDA-MB-468 cells at mean GI% and GI50 levels. Compared to staurosporine, these compounds (5f-i and 7a) demonstrated better safety towards typical WI-38 cells. Compounds 5g and 7a demonstrated the highest inhibition (two-digit nanomolar) when compared to erlotinib when their potency was tested on EGFR kinase. Considering the outcomes above, 5g was examined for its ability to disrupt the cell cycle with trigger apoptosis in breast cancer MDA-MB-468 cell lines. The apoptosis markers Bax, Bcl-2, Caspase-8, and Caspase-9, were detected. In silico molecular docking and dynamic simulation were used to explainthe biological activities of the most potent compound.

Design, synthesis, anticancer evaluation, and in silico studies of some thieno[2,3-d]pyrimidine derivatives as EGFR inhibitors

New series of 20 thieno[2,3-d]pyrimidine derivatives have been synthesized. The National Cancer Institute evaluated all the newly synthesized compounds for their antiproliferative activity against a panel of 60 cancer cell lines. Compound 7b exhibited a remarkable antineoplastic activity at 10 µM dose and was therefore tested at five dose concentrations. The significant and broad-spectrum antineoplastic action of compound 7b was observed against 37 of the tested cancer cell lines with a dose that inhibits 50% of the growth compared to control values in the micromolar range of 1.95-9.6 µM. The dose which inhibits the growth completely in the cytostatic range of 3.99-100 µM was also observed. Compound 7b effectively inhibited epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) with 50% inhibition concentration value (IC50 ) = 0.096 ± 0.004 compared to erlotinib with IC50  = 0.037 ± 0.002. Moreover, compound 7b revealed a powerful downregulation effect on total EGFR concentration and its phosphorylation. In addition, compound 7b inhibited phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, protein kinase B, and the mammalian target of rapamycin pathway phosphorylation. Furthermore, compound 7b raised total apoptosis by 21.93-fold in the ovarian cancer cell line (OVCAR-4) and caused an arrest in the cell cycle in the G1/S phase. It also raised the level of caspase-3 by 4.72-fold. Furthermore, to determine the binding manner of the most effective derivatives and validate their capacity to comply with the pharmacophoric properties necessary for EGFR inhibition, they were docked into the active site of the EGFR.

Current development of pyrazole-azole hybrids with anticancer potential

Chemotherapy is a critical treatment modality for cancer patients, but multidrug resistance remains one of the major challenges in cancer therapy, creating an urgent need for the development of novel potent chemical entities. Azoles, particularly pyrazole, could interact with different biological targets and exhibit diverse biological properties including anticancer activity. Many clinically used anticancer agents own an azole moiety, demonstrating that azoles are privileged and pivotal templates in the discovery of novel anticancer chemotherapeutics. The present article is an attempt to highlight the recent advances in pyrazole-azole hybrids with anticancer potential and discuss the structure-activity relationships, covering articles published from 2018 to present, to facilitate the rational design of more effective anticancer candidates.