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Burnett CL, Bergfeld WF, Belsito DV, Hill RA, Klaassen CD, Liebler DC, Marks JG, Shank RC, Slaga TJ, Snyder PW, Andersen FA, Heldreth B. Safety Assessment of Alkyl Betaines as Used in Cosmetics. Int J Toxicol 2019; 37:28S-46S. [PMID: 29761731 DOI: 10.1177/1091581818773354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel (Panel) reviewed the safety of 11 alkyl betaines as used in cosmetics. These ingredients are reported to function as hair and skin conditioning agents, antistatic agents, surfactants-cleansing agents, and viscosity-increasing agents in cosmetic products. Although there are data gaps, the shared chemical core structure, similar functions and concentrations of use in cosmetics, and the expected similarities in physicochemical properties enabled grouping these ingredients and reading across the available toxicological data to support the safety assessment of each individual compound in the entire group. The Panel concluded alkyl betaines were safe as cosmetic ingredients in the present practices of use and concentration, when formulated to be nonirritating.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina L Burnett
- 1 Scientific Analyst/Writer, Cosmetic Ingredient Review, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Wilma F Bergfeld
- 2 Panel Member, Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Donald V Belsito
- 2 Panel Member, Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Ronald A Hill
- 2 Panel Member, Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Curtis D Klaassen
- 2 Panel Member, Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Daniel C Liebler
- 2 Panel Member, Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert, Washington, DC, USA
| | - James G Marks
- 2 Panel Member, Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Ronald C Shank
- 2 Panel Member, Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Thomas J Slaga
- 2 Panel Member, Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Paul W Snyder
- 2 Panel Member, Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert, Washington, DC, USA
| | - F Alan Andersen
- 3 Former Director, Cosmetic Ingredient Review, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Bart Heldreth
- 4 Executive Director, Cosmetic Ingredient Review, Washington, DC, USA
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New candidate biomarkers in the female genital tract to evaluate microbicide toxicity. PLoS One 2014; 9:e110980. [PMID: 25333937 PMCID: PMC4205019 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0110980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2014] [Accepted: 09/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Vaginal microbicides hold great promise for the prevention of viral diseases like HIV, but the failure of several microbicide candidates in clinical trials has raised important questions regarding the parameters to be evaluated to determine in vivo efficacy in humans. Clinical trials of the candidate microbicides nonoxynol-9 (N9) and cellulose sulfate revealed an increase in HIV infection, vaginal inflammation, and recruitment of HIV susceptible lymphocytes, highlighting the need to identify biomarkers that can accurately predict microbicide toxicity early in preclinical development and in human trials. We used quantitative proteomics and RT-PCR approaches in mice and rabbits to identify protein changes in vaginal fluid and tissue in response to treatment with N9 or benzalkonium chloride (BZK). We compared changes generated with N9 and BZK treatment to the changes generated in response to tenofovir gel, a candidate microbicide that holds promise as a safe and effective microbicide. Both compounds down regulated mucin 5 subtype B, and peptidoglycan recognition protein 1 in vaginal tissue; however, mucosal brush samples also showed upregulation of plasma proteins fibrinogen, plasminogen, apolipoprotein A-1, and apolipoprotein C-1, which may be a response to the erosive nature of N9 and BZK. Additional proteins down-regulated in vaginal tissue by N9 or BZK treatment include CD166 antigen, olfactomedin-4, and anterior gradient protein 2 homolog. We also observed increases in the expression of C-C chemokines CCL3, CCL5, and CCL7 in response to treatment. There was concordance in expression level changes for several of these proteins using both the mouse and rabbit models. Using a human vaginal epithelial cell line, the expression of mucin 5 subtype B and olfactomedin-4 were down-regulated in response to N9, suggesting these markers could apply to humans. These data identifies new proteins that after further validation could become part of a panel of biomarkers to effectively evaluate microbicide toxicity.
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3
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Microbicides: Molecular Strategies for Prevention of Sexually Transmitted Viral Disease. Antiviral Res 2014. [DOI: 10.1128/9781555815493.ch15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Lu L, Pan C, Li Y, Lu H, He W, Jiang S. A bivalent recombinant protein inactivates HIV-1 by targeting the gp41 prehairpin fusion intermediate induced by CD4 D1D2 domains. Retrovirology 2012; 9:104. [PMID: 23217195 PMCID: PMC3531269 DOI: 10.1186/1742-4690-9-104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2012] [Accepted: 11/11/2012] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Most currently approved anti-HIV drugs (e.g., reverse transcriptase inhibitors, protease inhibitors and fusion/entry inhibitors) must act inside or on surface of the target cell to inhibit HIV infection, but none can directly inactivate virions away from cells. Although soluble CD4 (sCD4) can inactivate laboratory-adapted HIV-1 strains, it fails to reduce the viral loads in clinical trials because of its low potency against primary isolates and tendency to enhance HIV-1 infection at low concentration. Thus, it is essential to design a better HIV inactivator with improved potency for developing new anti-HIV therapeutics that can actively attack the virus in the circulation before it attaches to and enter into the target cell. Results We engineered a bivalent HIV-1 inactivator, designated 2DLT, by linking the D1D2 domain of CD4 to T1144, the next generation HIV fusion inhibitor, with a 35-mer linker. The D1D2 domain in this soluble 2DLT protein could bind to the CD4-binding site and induce the formation of the gp41 prehairpin fusion-intermediate (PFI), but showed no sCD4-mediated enhancement of HIV-1 infection. The T1144 domain in 2DLT then bound to the exposed PFI, resulting in rapid inactivation of HIV-1 virions in the absence of the target cell. Beside, 2DLT could also inhibit fusion of the virus with the target cell if the virion escapes the first attack of 2DLT. Conclusion This bivalent molecule can serve as a dual barrier against HIV infection by first inactivating HIV-1 virions away from cells and then blocking HIV-1 entry on the target cell surface, indicating its potential for development as a new class of anti-HIV drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Lu
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of Ministries of Education and Health, Shanghai Medical College, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
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Lozenski K, Ownbey R, Wigdahl B, Kish-Catalone T, Krebs FC. Decreased cervical epithelial sensitivity to nonoxynol-9 (N-9) after four daily applications in a murine model of topical vaginal microbicide safety. BMC Pharmacol Toxicol 2012; 13:9. [PMID: 23025553 PMCID: PMC3519674 DOI: 10.1186/2050-6511-13-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2012] [Accepted: 09/13/2012] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The disappointing clinical failures of five topical vaginal microbicides have provided new insights into factors that impact microbicide safety and efficacy. Specifically, the greater risk for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) acquisition associated with multiple uses of a nonoxynol-9 (N-9)-containing product has highlighted the importance of application frequency as a variable during pre-clinical microbicide development, particularly in animal model studies. METHODS To evaluate an association between application frequency and N-9 toxicity, experiments were performed using a mouse model of cervicovaginal microbicide safety. In this model system, changes in cervical and vaginal epithelial integrity, cytokine release, and immune cell infiltration were assessed after single and multiple exposures to N-9. RESULTS After the initial application of N-9 (aqueous, 1%), considerable damage to the cervical epithelium (but not the vaginal epithelium) was observed as early as 10 min post-exposure and up to 8 h post-exposure. Subsequent daily exposures (up to 4 days) were characterized by diminished cervical toxicity relative to single exposures of like duration. Levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines released into the cervicovaginal lumen and the degree of CD14-positive immune cell infiltration proximal to the cervical epithelium were also dependent on the number of N-9 exposures. CONCLUSIONS Rather than causing cumulative cervical epithelial damage, repeated applications of N-9 were characterized by decreased sensitivity to N-9-associated toxicity and lower levels of immune cell recruitment. These results provide new insights into the failure of N-9-based microbicides and illustrate the importance of considering multiple exposure protocols in pre-clinical microbicide development strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karissa Lozenski
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, and Center for Molecular Therapeutics and Resistance, Center for Sexually Transmitted Disease, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, 245 N. 15th Street, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA
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Pirrone V, Passic S, Wigdahl B, Krebs FC. Application and removal of polyanionic microbicide compounds enhances subsequent infection by HIV-1. Virol J 2012; 9:33. [PMID: 22281044 PMCID: PMC3295645 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-9-33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2011] [Accepted: 01/26/2012] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Continued efforts are being directed toward the development of microbicides that will be used to reduce or eliminate the risk of HIV-1 sexual transmission. Unfortunately, clinical trials involving polyanion-containing microbicide formulations, including Carraguard (λ-carrageenan [LC]) and Ushercell (cellulose sulfate [CS]) demonstrated that these products were ineffective and may have, in some circumstances, increased the risk of HIV-1 infection. These findings prompted reassessments of the in vitro activities of these agents to determine whether variables that can affect agent safety and efficacy had been overlooked during preclinical testing. One such variable is product retention and loss following topical application. Results In the present studies involving an HIV-1-susceptible cell line and primary human immune cells, product loss was mimicked by introducing and then removing polyanionic compounds prior to HIV-1 infection. In these in vitro "washout" experiments, LC and CS significantly enhanced HIV-1 infection, despite potent antiviral activity when introduced simultaneously with the virus. The presence and magnitude of this effect were dependent on compound identity and concentration; target cell; interval between compound removal and virus challenge; and coreceptor usage. Levels of enhancement (relative to controls) were considerable, exceeding a 200% increase (CS) in P4-R5 MAGI cells and a 300% increase (LC) in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Conclusions These studies, which demonstrate significant increases in HIV-1 infection subsequent to application and removal of LC and CS, support plausible explanations for the failures of microbicides formulated from these compounds. Detailed studies are now underway to determine the mechanism responsible for this enhancement effect and to assess the potential contribution of this effect to the clinical failures of these agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Pirrone
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, and Center for Molecular Therapeutics and Resistance, Center for Sexually Transmitted Disease, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA
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Cervicovaginal safety of the formulated, biguanide-based human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) inhibitor NB325 in a murine model. J Biomed Biotechnol 2011; 2011:941061. [PMID: 22131821 PMCID: PMC3202145 DOI: 10.1155/2011/941061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2011] [Revised: 08/04/2011] [Accepted: 08/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaginal microbicides that reduce or eliminate the risk of HIV-1 sexual transmission must do so safely without adversely affecting the integrity of the cervicovaginal epithelium. The present studies were performed to assess the safety of the biguanide-based antiviral compound NB325 in a formulation suitable for topical application. Experiments were performed using a mouse model of cervicovaginal microbicide application, which was previously shown to be predictive of topical agent toxicity revealed in microbicide clinical trials. Mice were exposed vaginally to unformulated NB325 or NB325 formulated in the hydroxyethyl cellulose “universal placebo.” Following exposures to formulated 1% NB325 for 10 min to 24 h, the vaginal and cervical epithelia were generally intact, although some areas of minimal vaginal epithelial damage were noted. Although formulated NB325 appeared generally safe for application in these studies, the low but observable level of toxicity suggests the need for improvements in the compound and/or formulation.
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8
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Clark MR, Aliyar HA, Lee CW, Jay JI, Gupta KM, Watson KM, Stewart RJ, Buckheit RW, Kiser PF. Enzymatic triggered release of an HIV-1 entry inhibitor from prostate specific antigen degradable microparticles. Int J Pharm 2011; 413:10-18. [PMID: 21511017 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2011.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2011] [Revised: 03/16/2011] [Accepted: 04/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This paper describes the design, construction and characterization of the first anti-HIV drug delivery system that is triggered to release its contents in the presence of human semen. Microgel particles were synthesized with a crosslinker containing a peptide substrate for the seminal serine protease prostate specific antigen (PSA) and were loaded with the HIV-1 entry inhibitor sodium poly(styrene-4-sulfonate) (pSS). The particles were composed of N-2-hydroxyproplymethacrylamide and bis-methacrylamide functionalized peptides based on the PSA substrates GISSFYSSK and GISSQYSSK. Exposure to human seminal plasma (HSP) degraded the microgel network and triggered the release of the entrapped antiviral polymer. Particles with the crosslinker composed of the substrate GISSFYSSK showed 17 times faster degradation in seminal plasma than that of the crosslinker composed of GISSQYSSK. The microgel particles containing 1 mol% GISSFYSSK peptide crosslinker showed complete degradation in 30 h in the presence of HSP at 37°C and pSS released from the microgels within 30 min reached a concentration of 10 μg/mL, equivalent to the published IC(90) for pSS. The released pSS inactivated HIV-1 in the presence of HSP. The solid phase synthesis of the crosslinkers, preparation of the particles by inverse microemulsion polymerization, HSP-triggered release of pSS and inactivation of HIV-1 studies are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meredith R Clark
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Utah, Biopolymers Research Building, 20 South 2030 East, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States
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Contraceptive efficacy, acceptability, and safety of C31G and nonoxynol-9 spermicidal gels: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2011; 116:1265-1273. [PMID: 21099590 DOI: 10.1097/aog.0b013e3181fc3b1a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To estimate whether a gel containing the spermicide C31G was noninferior to a commercially available product containing nonoxynol-9. METHODS Participants were healthy, sexually active women aged 18-40 years. Measured outcomes included pregnancy rates, continuation rates, adverse events, and acceptability. The primary study outcome was contraceptive efficacy. Sample size was calculated at a 2.5% significance level using a one-sided test based on assumed 6-month pregnancy probability of 15% in the nonoxynol-9 group. Sample size was sufficient to reject, with 80% power, the null hypothesis that pregnancy probability in the C31G arm would be more than 5% higher. RESULTS Nine hundred thirty-two women were randomized in the C31G group and 633 in the nonoxynol-9 group. For randomized patients with at least one episode of coitus (modified intent-to-treat group), 6-month pregnancy probabilities were 12.0% (95% confidence interval [CI] 9.3-14.7%) and 12.0% (95% CI 8.7-15.3%) for C31G and nonoxynol-9,respectively. Twelve-month pregnancy probabilities were 13.8% (95% CI 7.6-20%) for C31G and 19.8% (95% CI 10.9-28.7%) for nonoxynol-9. Two serious adverse events were deemed possibly related to study product and neither occurred in the C31G group. Three fourths of users in either group reported that they liked their assigned study product. Approximately 40% of patients discontinued prematurely for reasons other than pregnancy with 11% lost to follow-up. CONCLUSION C31G demonstrated noninferior contraceptive efficacy compared with nonoxynol-9. C31G may provide another marketable option for women seeking spermicidal contraception. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov, www.ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT00274261.
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Passic SR, Ferguson ML, Catalone BJ, Kish-Catalone T, Kholodovych V, Zhu W, Welsh W, Rando R, Howett MK, Wigdahl B, Labib M, Krebs FC. Structure-activity relationships of polybiguanides with activity against human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Biomed Pharmacother 2010; 64:723-32. [PMID: 21106331 PMCID: PMC3776307 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2010.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2010] [Revised: 08/24/2010] [Accepted: 10/10/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous investigations showing that polydisperse biguanide (PDBG) molecules have activity against human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) also suggested a relationship between PDBG biologic activity and the lengths of hydrocarbon linkers surrounding the positively charged biguanide unit. To better define structure-activity relationships, PDBG molecules with select linker lengths were evaluated for cytotoxicity, anti-HIV-1 activity, and in vivo toxicity. Results of the in vitro experiments demonstrated that increases in linker length (and, therefore, increases in compound lipophilicity) were generally associated with increases in cytotoxicity and antiviral activity against HIV-1. However, a relationship between linker length asymmetry and in vitro therapeutic index (TI) suggested structural specificity in the mechanism of action against HIV-1. Polyethylene hexamethylene biguanide (PEHMB; biguanide units spaced between alternating ethylene and hexamethylene linkers) was found to have the highest in vitro TI (CC₅₀/IC₅₀) among the compounds examined. Recent improvements in PEHMB synthesis and purification have yielded preparations of PEHMB with in vitro TI values of 266 and 7000 against HIV-1 strains BaL and IIIB, respectively. The minimal toxicity of PEHMB relative to polyhexamethylene biguanide (PHMB; biguanide units alternating with hexamethylene linkers) in a murine model of cervicovaginal microbicide toxicity was consistent with considerable differences in cytotoxicity between PEHMB and PHMB observed during in vitro experiments. These structure-activity investigations increase our understanding of PDBG molecules as agents with activity against HIV-1 and provide the foundation for further preclinical studies of PEHMB and other biguanide-based compounds as antiviral and microbicidal agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shendra R. Passic
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, and Center for Sexually Transmitted Disease, Center for Molecular Therapeutics, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19102, USA
| | - Mary Lee Ferguson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, and Center for Sexually Transmitted Disease, Center for Molecular Therapeutics, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19102, USA
| | - Bradley J. Catalone
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania 17033, USA
| | - Tina Kish-Catalone
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, and Center for Sexually Transmitted Disease, Center for Molecular Therapeutics, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19102, USA
| | - Vladyslav Kholodovych
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Medicine and Dentistry, New Jersey, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, USA
| | - Wei Zhu
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Medicine and Dentistry, New Jersey, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, USA
| | - William Welsh
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Medicine and Dentistry, New Jersey, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, USA
| | - Robert Rando
- Novaflux Biosciences, Inc., Princeton, New Jersey 08540, USA
| | - Mary K. Howett
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
| | - Brian Wigdahl
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, and Center for Sexually Transmitted Disease, Center for Molecular Therapeutics, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19102, USA
| | - Mohamed Labib
- Novaflux Biosciences, Inc., Princeton, New Jersey 08540, USA
| | - Fred C. Krebs
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, and Center for Sexually Transmitted Disease, Center for Molecular Therapeutics, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19102, USA
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A styrene-alt-maleic acid copolymer is an effective inhibitor of R5 and X4 human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. J Biomed Biotechnol 2010; 2010:548749. [PMID: 20589074 PMCID: PMC2879553 DOI: 10.1155/2010/548749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2010] [Accepted: 03/11/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
An alternating copolymer of styrene and maleic acid (alt-PSMA) differs from other polyanionic antiviral agents in that the negative charges of alt-PSMA are provided by carboxylic acid groups instead of sulfate or sulfonate moieties. We hypothesized that alt-PSMA would have activity against human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) comparable to other polyanions, such as the related compound, poly(sodium 4-styrene sulfonate) (PSS). In assays using cell lines and primary immune cells, alt-PSMA was characterized by low cytotoxicity and effective inhibition of infection by HIV-1 BaL and IIIB as well as clinical isolates of subtypes A, B, and C. In mechanism of action assays, in which each compound was added to cells and subsequently removed prior to HIV-1 infection ("washout" assay), alt-PSMA caused no enhancement of infection, while PSS washout increased infection 70% above control levels. These studies demonstrate that alt-PSMA is an effective HIV-1 inhibitor with properties that warrant further investigation.
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Gochin M, Cai L. The role of amphiphilicity and negative charge in glycoprotein 41 interactions in the hydrophobic pocket. J Med Chem 2009; 52:4338-44. [PMID: 19534533 DOI: 10.1021/jm900190q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The hydrophobic pocket within the coiled coil domain of HIV-1 gp41 is considered to be a hot-spot suitable for small molecule intervention of fusion, although so far it has yielded only microM inhibitors. Previous peptide studies have identified specific hydrophobic interactions and a Lys-Asp salt bridge as contributing to binding affinity in the pocket. Negative charge appears to be critical for activity of small molecules. We have examined the role of charge and amphiphilic character in the interaction by studying a series of short pocket binding peptides differing in charge, helical content, and in the presence or absence of the Lys-Asp salt bridge, and a series of fatty acid salts with varying charge and hydrocarbon length. Quantitative binding analysis revealed that long-range electrostatic forces and a greasy nonspecific hydrophobic interaction were sufficient for microM potency. The results suggest that an extended interaction site may be necessary for higher potency. We examined a region of the coiled coil immediately C-terminal to the pocket and found that specific salt bridge and hydrogen bond networks may reside in this region. Negatively charged groups extended toward or beyond the C-terminus of the pocket could therefore result in improved low molecular weight fusion inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Gochin
- Department of Basic Sciences, Touro University-California, Vallejo, California 94592, USA.
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Trifonova RT, Bajpai M, Pasicznyk JM, Chandra N, Doncel GF, Fichorova RN. Biomarkers of leukocyte traffic and activation in the vaginal mucosa. Biomarkers 2008; 12:608-22. [PMID: 17852080 DOI: 10.1080/13547500701600670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Development of novel vaginal spermicides and anti-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) microbicides requires careful assessment of their potential to recruit and activate CD4+ HIV-1 host cells in the female genital tract mucosa, two events that facilitate HIV-1 infection. Leukocyte traffic and activation are mediated by proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines, e.g. interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6 and IL-8, which have been detected in vaginal secretions in association with epithelial damage and infections. These proinflammatory mediators, however, have bidirectional, destructive as well as beneficial, effects on the mucosal barrier, and may be counterbalanced by endogenous inhibitors. Here we propose additional biomarkers for the evaluation of compound-induced cervicovaginal mucosal inflammation. Displaying different temporal patterns of detection, the levels of soluble E-selectin, vascular adhesion molecule-1, CD14 and myeloperoxidase in vaginal secretions reflected the mucosal leukocyte reaction to proinflammatory compounds being evaluated for safety in an improved rabbit vaginal irritation model. These biomarkers, which were also detected in human vaginal secretions, may be used to enhance the characterization of mucosal safety of vaginally applied compounds, both in animal as well as clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radiana T Trifonova
- Laboratory of Genital Tract Biology, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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Cone RA, Hoen T, Wong X, Abusuwwa R, Anderson DJ, Moench TR. Vaginal microbicides: detecting toxicities in vivo that paradoxically increase pathogen transmission. BMC Infect Dis 2006; 6:90. [PMID: 16740164 PMCID: PMC1523343 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-6-90] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2005] [Accepted: 06/01/2006] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Microbicides must protect against STD pathogens without causing unacceptable toxic effects. Microbicides based on nonoxynol-9 (N9) and other detergents disrupt sperm, HSV and HIV membranes, and these agents are effective contraceptives. But paradoxically N9 fails to protect women against HIV and other STD pathogens, most likely because it causes toxic effects that increase susceptibility. The mouse HSV-2 vaginal transmission model reported here: (a) Directly tests for toxic effects that increase susceptibility to HSV-2, (b) Determines in vivo whether a microbicide can protect against HSV-2 transmission without causing toxicities that increase susceptibility, and (c) Identifies those toxic effects that best correlate with the increased HSV susceptibility. METHODS Susceptibility was evaluated in progestin-treated mice by delivering a low-dose viral inoculum (0.1 ID50) at various times after delivering the candidate microbicide to detect whether the candidate increased the fraction of mice infected. Ten agents were tested - five detergents: nonionic (N9), cationic (benzalkonium chloride, BZK), anionic (sodium dodecylsulfate, SDS), the pair of detergents in C31G (C14AO and C16B); one surface active agent (chlorhexidine); two non-detergents (BufferGel, and sulfonated polystyrene, SPS); and HEC placebo gel (hydroxyethylcellulose). Toxic effects were evaluated by histology, uptake of a 'dead cell' dye, colposcopy, enumeration of vaginal macrophages, and measurement of inflammatory cytokines. RESULTS A single dose of N9 protected against HSV-2 for a few minutes but then rapidly increased susceptibility, which reached maximum at 12 hours. When applied at the minimal concentration needed for brief partial protection, all five detergents caused a subsequent increase in susceptibility at 12 hours of approximately 20-30-fold. Surprisingly, colposcopy failed to detect visible signs of the N9 toxic effect that increased susceptibility at 12 hours. Toxic effects that occurred contemporaneously with increased susceptibility were rapid exfoliation and re-growth of epithelial cell layers, entry of macrophages into the vaginal lumen, and release of one or more inflammatory cytokines (Il-1beta, KC, MIP 1alpha, RANTES). The non-detergent microbicides and HEC placebo caused no significant increase in susceptibility or toxic effects. CONCLUSION This mouse HSV-2 model provides a sensitive method to detect microbicide-induced toxicities that increase susceptibility to infection. In this model, there was no concentration at which detergents provided protection without significantly increasing susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard A Cone
- Mucosal Protection Laboratory, Dept. of Biophysics, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
- ReProtect, Inc., Baltimore, MD 21286, USA
| | - Timothy Hoen
- Mucosal Protection Laboratory, Dept. of Biophysics, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - XiXi Wong
- Mucosal Protection Laboratory, Dept. of Biophysics, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - Raed Abusuwwa
- Mucosal Protection Laboratory, Dept. of Biophysics, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - Deborah J Anderson
- Obstetrics and Gynecology, Boston University Medical Campus, Boston, MA 02118, USA
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